
aass„ 
Book- 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT 



1/ 

CALIFORNIA STATE SERIES OF SCHOOL TEXT-BOOKS. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



This book is designed to aid in giving the pupil a culture that will enable him to 

understand, appreciate, and therefore enjoy, good language, and chiefly in this 

•way, to lead him to acquire the habit of using good language himself. 



COMPILED UNDER THE DIRECTION 

STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION. 




sacramento. california. 
Printed at the State Printing Office. 



\- 



fE nil 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1888, by the 

STATE OF CALIFORNIA, 

In the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 

Diagram System copyrighted by 

Alonzo Reed and Beainerd Kellogg, 

in 1868, 1877, 1878, 1885, and 1887. 



IS'TEODUCTIOlSr. 



Part I. of this book is made to be used in the schools of this State, 
with pupils of from 11 to 14 years of age — the class that is about 
concluding the Second Reader, of the State Series. 

It is designed to give the pupil aid in clearly understanding the 
English sentence, and at the same time the ability to write sen- 
tences with ease and accuracy. 

Believing that the sentence is the language-unit, and that there- 
fore it is more interesting as well as more profitable to begin with 
the study of sentences, the subject has been thus introduced. An 
effort has been made to introduce technical grammar with very 
little technicality. 

In the grammar school there is an abundance of time for the 

study of language as here presented. The work should never be 

« owded. On the contrary, to secure all the culture there is in the 

-^f language, it must be taken slowly, and if so studied, instead 

ininteresting and distasteful, the subject will increase in 

interest from day to day. 

It is fully understood that the child must first have ideas and 
thoughts before he can express them, and that much of the work of 
the school must be devoted to leading him to observe, judge, and 
think for himself. But it is also true that one's language reacts 
upon his thoughts. While, in one sense, " we speak as we think," 
there is another sense in which ' ' we think as we speak. ' ' Accuracy 
of language begets accuracy of thought, and coarse or slovenly lan- 
guage may be both the cause and the result of the same kind of 
thought. The mastery of a new word, or of a new form of expres- 
sion, means the conception of a new idea, or a new thought or shade 
of thought. 



4 INTRODUCTION. 

It is said, '' Give a child something to say, and he will find a way 
in which to say it." This is probably true. He will find a way, 
but to find an acceptable way, or the best way, he needs guidance 
and culture. These a book on Grammar should give. 

By a special arrangement made with Messrs. Reed and Kellogg, 
authors of Reed and Kellogg's ''Graded Lessons in English" and 
''Higher Lessons in English," we are permitted to use the system 
of diagraming owned exclusively by them — a system that commends 
itself for its simplicity and expressiveness. We are confident that 
this will be acceptable to the teachers of the State, as the Reed and 
Kellogg Grammars are so widely used and are giving such excellent 
satisfaction. 



CONTENTS-PART I. 



PAGE. 

Ways of Grouping Words, 7 

Sentence, Clause, and Phrase, 8 

Kinds of Sentences 10 

The Predicate, 12 

The Subject, • 15 

Noun Subjects and Pronoun Subjects, 16 

Phrase Subjects and Chiuse Subjects, 16 

Position of the Subject, 17 

Compound Subjects and Compound Predicates, 18 

Analysis of Sentences 20 

The Object Complement, 23 

Analysis of Sentences, 25 

The Attribute Complement, 27 

Diagrams, 29 

Analysis of Sentences, 30 

Modifiers of the Predicate, 31 

Adverbial j\[odifiers — Phrase and Clause, 33 

Adjuncts of the Subject and Object, 35 

Adjective Adjuncts — Phrase and Clause, 36 

Adjective Adjuncts of the Attribute, 37 

Composition and Analysis— Expanding Sentences, 38 

The Form of Sentences— Simple, Complex, and Compound, ... 38 

More About Adverbial Modifiers, 41 

Prepositional Phrases, 42 

Veroal Phrases, 44 

The Clause — Connective Pronouns, 46 

The Clause— Connective Adverbs, 47 

Conjunctions 48 

Independent Parts, 50 

Sentence Building, 52, 54 

Review Questions, 55 

Forms for Analysis, and Diagrams, 58, 61 

Sentences for Analysis, 62 



PART n. 

Chapter I.— Review of Parts of Speech. 

Definitions, . . . ' 68 

How to Tell the Part's of Speech 69 

Chapter II. — Nouns and Pronouns. 

Kinds of Nouns, 71 

Number, '73 

Collective Nouns, | 80 

Person, 81 

Gender, 82 

Office (Case), ..!.!! 84 

Rules and Cautions, ! . 91. 95 

Declinable Pronouns, '93 

Errors in the Use of Nouns and Pronouns, 97 

Analysis and Diagrams, 99 



b CONTENTS. 

Chapter IIL— Pronouns. page. 

Antecedents, 106 

Personal Pronouns, 107 

Compound Personal Pronouns, Ill 

Connective (Relative) Pronouns, 113 

Compound Connective Pronouns, 118 

Rules and Cautions, 120, 126 

Errors in the Use of Connective Pronouns, 126 

Interrogatives, 128 

Chapter IV. — Adjectives, 

Classes of Adjectives, 134 

Changes in Form (Comparison), " 189 

Rules and Cautions, 143, 149 

Errors in the Use of Adjectives, 145, 147 

Chapter Y.— Adverbs. 

Uses of Adverbs, 153 

Classes of Adverbs, 157 

Comparison, 158 

Rules and Cautions 160, 164 

Errors in the Use of Adverbs, 162 

Chapter VI. — Conpinctions. 

Classes of Conjunctions, 166 

Rules and Cautions, 171, 174 

Chapter VII. — Prepositions. 

Objects of Prepositions, 177 

Variable Uses of Prepositions, 179 

Choice of Prepositions, 181, 186 

Rules, 181, 186 

Position of Prepositions and Prepositional Phrases, 183 

Chapter Y 111. —Interjections. 

Interjections, ' 188 

Chapter IX.— Verbs and Verbals. 

Principal Parts 189 

Auxiliaries, 190 

Strong and Weak Verbs, 191 

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs, 201 

Forms of Verbs— Simple, Progressive, Emphatic, Active, and 

Passive, . 202 

Idiomatic Constructions, 204 

Tense, 206 

Mode, 207 

Conjugation, 216 

Rules and Cautions, 223 

Errors in the Use of Verbs, 224 

Uses and Forms of Infinitives, 227 

Rules for the Use of Infinitives, 230 

Uses and Forms of Participles, 231 

Rules for the Use of Participles, 233 

Chapter 'X..— Selections for Analysis, 237 

Chapter XI. — Miscellaneous Errors in Syntax, 241 

Chapter Xll .—Topical Abstracts in Review, ........ 248 

Chapter 'Xlll.— Review Questions, 255 

Chapter X.IY .—Punctuation, 264 

Chapter XN.— Letter Writing, 275 

Index, 289 



CALIFORNIA SERIES. 

ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Zesson /. 

Ways of Grouping Words. 

When we wish to express our thoughts, either by speak- 
ing or writing, we use words. If we know how to use words 
well, we can express our thoughts in a variety of ways, and 
in each so as to be clearly understood. This expression of 
thoughts by the use of words is called Language. The 
study of Grammar is designed to teach us: (1) to under- 
stand language, and (2) to use it well. 

By examining the following groups of words, we shall 
find that they are put together in four quite different ways: 

1. Little fast a under garden saw. 3. When the boy came home. 

2. Running down the street. 4. Henry lost his ball. 

In the first, although each word, alone, means something, 
the words taken together mean nothing. 

In the second, there is a meaning, but the thought is not 
fully expressed. 

In the third, there is a thought expressed, but it does not 
seem complete. 

In the fourth, the thought is fully expressed. 

Examine the following groups of words, comparing them 
with the four examples given above, and arrange them in 
four divisions, writing those like the first example in one 
di\dsion; those like the second example in another, and 
so on: 



8 GROUPING WORDS. ^^ 

1. Jennie fed her birds. 2. (When) the hunter saw the fire. 3. In 
that little cup. 4. The farmer is tired. 5. Letter long a writing inter- 
esting. 6. A poor man once had a parrot. 7. (Which) the child found. 
8. To read aloud well. 9. As a hon was lying asleep. 10. The tall oak 
was once a small acorn. 11. Speaking very kindly. 12. An old pine 
tree stood by the house. 13. (While) the wind is blowing. 14. Not 
were kind these always men. 15. To reach home soon. 16. The two 
base ball clubs played a game. 17. (If) James is a brave boy. 18. (After) 
the men had eaten supper. 19. Little Frank has been playing with 
Rover. 20. Under the spreading branches. 21. The high hills rose on 
all sides. 22. Overhead we flying which saw swiftly. 23. Three sisters 
once lived here. 24. Waving his arms and shouting aloud. 25. The 
men were catching fish. 26. Flying through the air. 

Note. — Where the parenthesis is used, note the difference between the 
group of words with and without the inclosed word. 



Composition Exercises: 

a. Arrange the words in number 5, so as to form a group 
under example two. 

b. Arrange the words in number 14, so as to form a group 
under example /oitr. 

c. Arrange the words in number 22, so as to form a group 
under example three. 

d. Select a part of number 12 that is a group under 
example H'oo. 

e. Write three examples each, like two, three., and /our. 

Zessoii 3. 

Sentence, Clause, and Phrase. 

A group of words arranged like those in example four, 
Lesson 1, is called a Sentence; like those in example three 
is called a Clause ; and like those in example two is called 
a Phrase. 

As the groups like example one do not express thoughts, 
they do not belong to the study of language, and have no 
general name. 



.- " SENTENCE, CLAUSE, AND PHRASE. 9 

Definition. 

A Sentence is a complete statement, a question, or a com- 
mand. 

When a sentence contains two or more statements, ques- 
tions, • commands, each of these is called a Clause. 

Notice that a phrase alone can not make a statement, ask a 
question , or express a "command. 

a. Classify the following as sentences, clauses, or phrases: 

1. Unless the weather is pleasant. 2. A few days ago. 3. Carl and 
Andrew are spinning their tops. 4. That he has no money. 5. Walk- 
ing along the street. G. The ships coming in. 7. The ships are coming 
in. 8. In the woods. 9. While we were in the woods. 10. The sun set 
while we were in the woods. 11. Though we must start to-morrow. 
12. Of credit and renown. 13. John Gilpin was a citizen of credit and 
renown. 14. A family of crows lived in an old pine tree. 15. Where he 
once hunted the deer. 16. Just in time. 17. Which could be seen 
through the fog. 18. Not far away. 19. Not far away rose three high 
peaks which could be seen through the fog. 20. Here is a loaf of bread. 
21. To see my brother daily. 22. For he had sprained his ankle. 23. 
When the horse grows old. 24. Sugar is imported from the Sandwich 
Islands. 25. A new steamer has been built. 20. In twenty minutes. 
27. I will start. 

b. From the preceding select seven clauses which will 
become sentences when the first word in each is dropped. 

c. Select four phrases that form parts of clauses or 
sentences. 

d. Select five phrases, five clauses, and five sentences 
from the last lesson that you read in your Reader. 



J^esson ^. 

Sentence, Clause, and Phrase. 
Composition Exercise: 

a. Copy four clauses from the list in Lesson 3, adding 
enough words to form a sentence of each. 

b. Copy four phrases, adding enough words to form a 
sentence of each. 



10 KINDS OF SFNTFNCES. ^' •"' 

c. Write four sentences, four clauses, and four phrases, 
of your own composition. 

Kinds of Sentences. 

Examine the four examples given below, and observe 
the change in thought, and in the way the thought is ex- 
pressed : 

Susan plays. Susan, play. 

Does Susan play ? How Susan plays. 

The first sentence states, or declares; the second asks a 
question; the third commands; the fourth exclaims and 
also declares. 

Exercise : 

In the same way, classify the following sentences: 

1. Where is the hunter going? 2. Whatahappy boy heis ! 3. Boys, 
finish your work. 4. What is the largest river in South America ? 5. 
Name the largest river in South America. 6. The Amazon is the largest 
river in South America. 7. The train has left the station. 8. The train 
has not left the station. 9. How fast the horse runs ! 10. When will 
your brother return? 11. Neither a lender nor a borrower be. 12. 
Polly, put the kettle on. 

Definitions. 

A sentence that states, or declares, is called a Declara- 
tive sentence. 

A sentence that asks a question, or interrogates, is 
called an Interrogative sentence. 

A sentence that commands, is called an Imperative 
sentence. 

When any one of the above is used to express strong or 
sudden feeling, it becomes an Exclamatory sentence. 

A declarative sentence may become exclamatory; as, 
We are lost! 

An interrogative sentence may become exclamatory; as, 
What! shall we desert our friends! 



KINDS OF SENTENCES. 11 

All imperative sentence may become exclamatory; as, 
Run! run for your lives! 

By comparing numbers seven and eight of the above 
sentences, you will see that a declarative sentence may 
declare either by affirming, as in number seven, or by 
denying, as in number eight. 

Remark. — A sentence that affirms is called an affirmative sentence. 
A sentence that denies is called a negative sentence. 
Interrogative or imperative sentences may have the negative form; as, 
Did you not spend the money ? Do not leave the room. 



J^esson 6, 

Kinds of Sentences. 
Exercise : 

a. Classify the following sentences as Declarative, Inter- 
rogative, Imperative, or Exclamatory: 

1. Boys, do not throw stones at that poor cow. 2. Joseph was the 
son of Jacob. 3. Alas, we are left alone ! 4. Did you ever hear of the 
emperor Nero ? 5. I have found a place where the sun shines. 6. How 
anxious was the poor sailor then ! 7. Are you not ready yet, Thomas ? 
8. A little old woman went slowly down the street. 9. He asked when 
we would be ready to go. 10. When shall you be ready to go? 11. Love 
your enemies. 12. Merrily goes the swing, under the old oak tree. 13. 
How sweet the answer Echo makes to music at night. 14. What have 
you been searching for? 15. What a good time we have had ! 

b. Find in your Reader, four Declarative sentences; four 
Imperative; four Interrogative: and four Exclamatory. 



Composition — Kinds of Sentences. 

[To the Teacher. — This lesso7i may be divided into sections accord- 
ing to the ability of the class. In all written work hereafter the pupil 
should be held responsible for the following directions.] 

1. Begin every sentence with a capital letter. 

2. Put a period at the end of each declarative sentence 
and each imperative sentence. 



12 KINDS OF SENTENCES. 

3. Put an interrogation point at the close of each inter- 
rogative sentence. 

4. Put an exclamation point at the close of each exclama- 
tory sentence. 

5. When the name or the title of the person addressed is 
used simply to call his attention or to point out the person 
meant, it is separated from the rest of the sentence by the 
comma; thus, 

" Frank, come and help us." " Harry, you and Louis may get some 
water." " I think, sir, that you are mistaken." 

Exercises: 

a. Compose and write four declarative sentences; four 
imperative; four interrogative; and four exclamatory, ob- 
serving carefully the directions given for punctuation. 

b. Write three declarative sentences and change them, 
first, to interrogative; second, to imperative; third, to ex- 
clamatory. 

c. If the three declarative sentences just written are 
affirmative, change them to negative; if negative, change 
them to affirmative. 

d. Write an interrogative sentence in the negative form. 

e. Write an imperative sentence in the negative form. 

f. Change number six in Lesson 6 to an interrogative 
sentence. 

g. Change number twelve to an interrogative sentence. 
h. Change number eight to an interrogative sentence. 
i. Change number fifteen to a declarative sentence. 



1/esson 8. 

The Predicate. 

Examine closely the sentences and clauses already given 
you to classify, and you will find, in each, one or more 
words that make the assertion. 

Thus, in the sentence, Henry lost his hall, lost is the 



THE PREDICATE. 13 

asserting word; in the clause, When the hoy came home, 
CAME is the asserting word ; in the sentence, The farmer is 
tired, is is the asserting word. 

The asserting word in the following sentences is itali- 
cized : 

1. Charles lives on a farm. 3. The child sings for joy. 

2. I see ten geese. 4. The horses are in the stable. 

5. Men often himt with dogs. 

Exercise : 

Find all the asserting words in the examples given in 
Lesson 3. 

The word that asserts is the most important word in a 
sentence or a clause; for, without it, neither a sentence nor 
a clause can be formed ; w^hile some sentences, as 

Go; Come; March; 

are complete without any other w^ord expressed. 

If you have looked carefully through the examples in 
Lesson 3, you have discovered that every sentence and 
every clause contains an asserting w^ord, but that a phrase 
does not contain any such word. 

The asserting word has various names. It is called the 
Word-Predicate, Grammatical Predicate, or Verb (predi- 
cate meaning that ichich states, and rerb meaning merely 
the word, so called because it is the chief word). 

The verb wdth all the w'ords that modify its meaning is 
called the Entire Predicate, or the Logical Predicate. 

Thus, in the sentences above, the entire predicates are, 
lives on a farm; see ten geese; sings for joy; are in the 
stable; often hunt with dogs; W'hile the word-predicates are, 
lives, see, sings, are, hunt. 

Remark. — Words joined to other words to modify or limit their mean- 
ing are called adjuncts. The word adjunct means joined to. 



14 THE PREDICATE— COMPOSITION. 

Jjesso7z 9. 

The Predicate. 
Exercise : 

In the examples given in Lessons 3 and 5, give the entire 
'predicate of each clause or sentence, then select the word- 
predicate. 

As you have seen in the examples already studied, the 
word-predicate, or verb, is sometimes made up of two or 
more words of nearly equal importance. 

Examples : 

1. A lion was lying asleep. 2. The wind is blowing. 3. The men had 
eaten supper. 4. Little Frank has been playing with Rover. 5. The 
men were catching fish. 6. Do not go too near. 7. May I go to school? 
8. The sun has just set. 9. The poor man has lost his hat. 10. The river 
can not be seen. 



Ijesson W. 

Composition Exercise — The Predicate. 

a. Write sentences, in which the following shall be used 
as word-predicates, making six declarative sentences, six 
interrogative, four imperative, and four exclamatory, using 
the required predicates in any order that you choose: 

Look, lost, sent, builds, swam, knew, escaped, have met, will send, 
were dismissed, had been writing, has suffered, will raise, was seen, has 
hurt, came, were, grow, took, are. 

b. Compose five sentences in which the word-predicate 
shall be made up of two or more words, and underline the 
words of which it is formed. 

c. Select the word-predicates from your last reading 
lesson. 

[Note to Teacher. — These composition exercises, though included 
in one lesson, should occupy from four to six recitations.] 



THE SUBJECT. 15 

J/esso?i //. 

The Subject. 

Examine again the sentences and clauses in which you 
have selected the predicates, and you will find in each 
another very important word. This word names the per- 
son or the thing about which something is asserted. Thus, 
in the sentence, Henry lost his ball, Henry is the name of 
the person about whom the predicate, lost Ids ball, makes 
an assertion. 

We may change the sentence, and write it, The ball was 
lost by Henry. 

In this sentence, ball is the name of the thing about 
which the predicate, was lost by Henry, makes an assertion. 

In the clause, ivhile the wind is blowing, wind is the 
name of the thing about which the predicate, is blowing, 
makes an assertion. 

The name of the person or thing about which the predi- 
cate asserts something, is called the Word- Subject or the 
Grammatical Subject. 

The Word-Subject, with all its adjuncts, is called the 
Entire Subject or the Logical Subject. 

In the following examples, one line is drawn under the 
entire subject, and two lines under the word-subject. 

Examples : 

1. An hour soon passes. 

2. This man is shooting ducks. 

3. The Indian's hut is made of bark, 

4. The fence has been broken by the cows. 

5. A little robin has built her nest in this tree. 



Exercise : 

a. Rewrite number two, expressing the same thought, but 
making ducks the subject; number three, making Indian 
the subject; number three again, making bai^Jc the subject; 



16 NOUN SUBJECTS AND PRONOUN SUBJECTS. 

iiumber/oiir, making cows the subject; number five, making 
nest the subject. 

b. Give the entire subject, then the word subject, of the 
sentences and clauses used as examples in Lessons 1 and 3. 



Lesson /^. 

Noun Subjects and Pronoun Subjects. 

The word-subject is generally a name, or noun {noun 
meaning naw,e). In some sentences, as numbers /owr, nine, 
eleven, and some others, in Lesson 3, the word-subject is not 
a noun, but is a tvord used instead of a noun. Such a word 
is called a Pronoun. 

Examples : 

1. Here ive are. 2. He is always cheerful. 3. /think they are going. 
Exercise : 

a. Write in one column all the noun subjects, and in 
another the pronoun subjects in the sentences given in Les- 
son 3. 

b. Write four sentences with noun subjects and four with 
pronoun subjects. 

Lessou /S. 

Phrase Subjects and Clause Subjects. 

Exercise : 

After selecting the predicate in each of the following 
sentences, carefully examine the subject : 

1. To write well is a valuable accomplishment. 

2. Sliding on the ice made him tired. 

3. To work with a will is a remedy for sadness. 

1. Where he went is not known. 

2. That we shall succeed is certain, 

3. Where are you going? is the question. 

The subject of each of the first three of the preceding 



PHRASE SUBJECTS AND CLAUSE SUBJECTS 17 

sentences is a phrase. The subject of each of the next 
three is a clause. 

It will be seen, therefore, that the subject of a sentence 
may be a noun, a pronoun, a phrase, or a clause. 

Remark. — As nouns are, in a more general way, called substantives; 
words, phrases, or clauses used as noicns are substantive in office. 

Exercise : 

a. Copy the following sentences, then draw two lines 
under each entire predicate, and one line under each entire 
subject. 

b. Select the word-predicate, and state whether the sub- 
ject is a noun, a pronoun, a phrase, or a clause. 

1. Amidst the storms they sang. 2. I do not know where he is. 
3. Why he returned was not told. 4. This is the cat that killed the rat. 
5. To learn a language well is difficult. 6. To plan well is of great im- 
portance. 7. There eternal Summer dwells. 8. To see you happy sat- 
isfies me. 9. That I have helped you, is proof of my friendship. 
10. Around the fire, one wintry night, the farmer's rosy children sat. 

c. Write three sentences with phrase subjects, and three 
with clause subjects, underlining as directed above. 



Position of the Subject. 

In most of the examples studied so far, the subject is 
placed before the predicate. In some sentences, however, 
the subject is placed after the predicate, and in some 
sentences it is placed between the words that form the 
predicate. 

Examples : 

1. Here is the man. (After.) 2. There sat the ki7ig. 3. Do you see 
that tree? (Between.) 4. Loud blew the mnd. 5. Has the money been 
found ? 

In an imperative sentence, and often in an interrogative 
sentence, the name of the person addressed, although it at 

2-G 



18 POSITION OF SUBJECT. 

first seems to be the subject, is used simply to point out the 
person meant, or to call his attention; and because it has 
no connection with the other words in the sentence, it is set 
off by the comma. The subject of an imperative sentence 
is always you, ye, or i/iou,^and is generally understood but 
not expressed. 

Exercise : 

a. Select first the entire predicate, then the entire subject 
in each of the following sentences. Give reasons for the 
marks of punctuation: 

1. Where have you been? 2. Wind the clock. 3. Found he the 
peace he sought? 4. Friends, give me your hands. 5. Ill fares the 
land. 6. Lucy, where have you been? 

b. Select the entire subject, then the word-subject, in 
each of the sentences given as examples in Lessons 5 and 6. 

c. Write five sentences in which the subject shall be 
placed after the predicate or between the words that form 
the predicate, underlining the predicate, or its parts, twice, 
and the subject once. 

J^esson /cJ. 

Compound Subjects and Compound Predicates. 

Exercise : 

Select the word-predicates and the word-subjects in the 
following : 

1. The horse jumped and ran. 2. 1 ate my breakfast and started for 
school. 3. The children laughed, danced, and shouted. 4. Jennie and 
Lucy are feeding their pets. 5. The cows, the horses, and the chickens 
have been fed. 6. The old hen and her brood started for the water. 
7. William and his father dug the holes and set the posts. 8. Lizzie, 
Nellie, and Frank picked the peas and shelled them for dinner. 

From these sentences it will be seen: 

1. That two or more predicates may have the same sub- 



COMPOUND SUBJECTS AND COMPOUND PREDICATES. 19 

ject, as in numbers one, two, and three; in this case, the 
predicate is compound. 

2. That one predicate may have two or more subjects, as 
in numbers fon.r, five, and six; in this case, the subject is 
compound. 

3. That two or more predicates may have two or more 
subjects, as in numbers seven and eight; in this case, the 
subject and the predicate are both compound. 

Remark. — Sitch sentences are classified as simple sentences, (i) with a 
compound subject, or {2) a compound predicate, or (3) with both. 

Direction for Punctuation. — When a compound subject 
or a compound predicate is made up of more than two 
parts, the parts should be separated by the comma; as, 

The trees, the bushes, the fences, and the houses were covered with 
snow. 

We encamped b}^ the river, pitched our tent, and prepared our evening 
meal. 

Composition Exercise : 

Form sentences, using the following compound subjects 
and compound predicates : 

Apples, pears, peaches. Books, papers, magazines. 
Lincoln, Grant, Garfield. Bellows, an\il, hammer, iron. 
Mother, father, sisters, brothers. 

Were watching, were working, w^ere w^aiting. Go, tell, come. 
Will study, will learn, will improve. Said, started. 
Are written, are pubhshed. 

J^esso/i /6*. 

Predicate and Subject. 
Exercise : 

Select the word-predicates in the following stories, and 
give the word-subject of each predicate: 

Two travelers were going along a dangerous road, and they prom- 
ised to stand by one another to the last. Bj^-and-by they entered a 
wood, and were alarmed at seeing a huge bear coming in their direc- 



20 PREDICATE AND SUBJECT— EXERCISES. 

tion at full speed. The younger man quickly climbed a tree, and left 
his companion to shift for himself. The other man fell and lay per- 
fectly still, as if dead. Soon the savage beast came up, sniffed all 
around, and as the man lay breathless, it walked away, supposing him 
to be dead, and left him unharmed. The younger man now descended 
from the tree where he had been watching, and jestingly asked, 
"What did the bear whisper in your ear?" "He told me," replied 
the other, " never again to believe or trust a man like you." 

A horse was drawing a heavy load of timber along one of the crowded 
thoroughfares of a large city, lately, and being unable, with its heavy 
load, to turn quick enough to please its driver, he, in a fit of bad temper, 
began to beat it severely. This only made the animal stupid, and at 
last it stood quite still, and refused to move another step. He whipped 
the horse again and again, but it only reared and kicked, and then 
again stubbornly stood still. A passer-by, who knew the horse well, 
and knew how to treat it, went up to its head, spoke gently to the 
trembling animal, patted it on the neck, and then said, " Come along, 
Bob." The horse looked at him with its great eyes, as much as to say, 
"I would do anj'^thing for you, because you speak kindly to me." Then 
it exerted all its great strength, and the heavy load was once more 
moving along the street. 

A poor old blind soldier used to earn a scanty living by playing his 
violin every night in one of the public gardens in Vienna. His little 
dog sat beside him, holding its master's hat for the few coppers that 
passers-by occasionally dropped in. One night the old man was in 
great trouble. No one stopped to listen to his music, and he had not 
received a single coin that day. Hungry and weary and grieved, the 
poor soldier at last fairly broke down and wept. A stranger, seeing his 
distress, came up to him, put a coin in the hat, and said kindly, " Lend 
me your violin, and I will play while you collect." He tuned the fiddle 
carefully, and then played so well that a great crowd soon gathered to 
listen. The hat quickly filled, not with copper only, but with silver, 
also. The stranger, who so nobly came to the help of a poor, broken- 
down soldier, was one of the finest violin players in the world. The 
old man wept tears of joy as he blessed his benefactor, and as the latter 
walked away the crowd heartily cheered him for his kindness. 



Jyesson /7. 

Analysis of Sentences. 

To analyze a sentence is to separate it into its parts and 
to give the office of each part. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 21 

Exercise : 

Classify the following sentences, as in Lesson 5; give the 
entire predicate, the word-predicate, and the entire subject 
of each; state whether the subject is a noun, a pronoun, a 
phrase, or a clause. 

Note. — 1)1 the analysis of a sentence, it is better to select the predicate first. 

Models : 

1. "The general sent a message." 

A declarative sentence, because it contains a statement; Entire 
predicate — seat a message; Word-predicate — sent; Entire subject— ^/le 
general; Word-subject — general — a noun. 

2. "Is climbing the mountain difiBcult?" 

An interrogative sentence, because it asks a question; Entire pred- 
icate — is difficult; Word-predicate — is; Subject — climbing the mountain — 
a phrase. 

1. I met a little cottage girl. 2. Where did you find that pretty stone ? 
•3. Look at me. (Subject not expressed) 4, Which book did you ask for? 
5. Go thy way for this tiuie. 6. Did you and May go to school yester- 
day ? 7. The wizard opened a drawer and took from it a lovely necklace. 
8. What a delightful time you must have had ! 9. Come in, poor child, 
and warm yourself. 10. Eating unripe fruit will make you sick. 11. 
The doctor had seldom seen a more patient child. 12. That a mistake 
had been made, was quite evident. 13. " We shall see," was his only 
answer. 14. Children, can we not learn something from this story ? 
15. In his arm-chair sits dear old grandpa. 16. The parrot dragged the 
doll down and hid it. 17. Where the robber concealed his treasures, 
has never been discovered. 18. To leap down upon the pavement 
below would be instant death. 

19. A little word in kindness spoken, 
A motion, or a tear. 
Has often healed the heart that's broken, 
And made a friend sincere. 
20. Under a spreading chestnut tree, the village smithy stands. 

Jjesso7i 78, 

Composition in Review. 

1. Write the words / and as capitals. 

2. Begin with a capital, (a) every sentence, (b) every 



22 COMPOSITION— REVIEW. 

particular name of a person or a place, (c) all names of the 
Deity. 

Look in your Readers for examples of each. 

Exercises : 

a. Write a declarative sentence with a compound predi- 
cate. 

b. Write an interrogative sentence with a compound 
subject. 

c. Write an exclamatory sentence with a pronoun as 
the subject. 

d. Write a declarative sentence with a clause as the subject. 

e. Write a declarative sentence with a compound predi- 
cate, and with a compound subject made up of two pro- 
nouns. 

f. Write a declarative sentence with a phrase as the 
subject. 

g. Write an imperative sentence with a compound predi- 
cate consisting of three verbs. 

h. Write an interrogative sentence with a phrase as the 
subject. 

i. Write an affirmative sentence. 
j. Write a negative sentence. 



J/esso?i 79. 

The Complement. 

In some of the sentences already studied, the word-predi- 
cate and the subject together do not make the sense com- 
plete. One of the other words seems to be needed. Thus, 
John lost, James is, men were, your answer was, are in- 
complete in sense; but when we add something to each, 
and say, John lost his hall, James is a brave youth, men 
were catching fish, your answer was right, the meaning of 
each is complete. These additional words are called com- 
plements, because they complete the sense of the predicate, 



THE OBJECT COMPLEMENT. 23 

Remark. — Verbs requiring complements are called incomplete verbs. 
The -Object Complement. 

Examine the complement of the predicate in the follow- 
ing sentences from Lessons 1 and 3: 

1. Jennie fed her bird. 2. The hunter saw the fire. 3. The two base- 
ball clubs plaj^ed a game. 4. The men had eaten supper. 5. Carl and 
Andrew are spinning their tops. 6. He once hunted the deer. 7. He 
had sprained his ankle. 

[Note to Teacher. — In the first three sentences, the object is under- 
lined. In the other sentences let the pupil find it for himself.] 

In each of these sentences, the complement is a noun, 
naming something upon which the action asserted by the 
predicate is performed ; thus, bird is the name of the ani- 
mal that Jennie fed; fire is the name of the thing that the 
hunter saw^ etc. 

Such a complement is called an Object complement, or 
Object. 

Exercise: 

a. In the following sentences, select the verbs that have 
objects, and give the object of each : 

1. Thomas built this house. 2. I saw a man by the roadside. 3. 
The birds found shelter in a large oak tree. 4. With our money we 
bought books. 5. Choose your friend with care. 6. Frank lit the fire, 
and his sister cooked the dinner. 7. Joseph had a coat of many colors. 
8. Select from this basket the largest apple. 9. Do you remember the 
man who built this house? 10. But when he caught the measure wild, 
the old man raised his head and smiled. 

b. Use the verbs in the first column in sentences, select- 
ing, from 'the second column, a suitable object for each verb. 

read vase 

ate book 

are driving baby 

burn picture 

gave ' friends 

has broken breakfast 

hold oxen 

am drawing story 

forsook table 

made dress 



24 THE OBJECT COMPLEMENT. 

Ijesso?i 20, 

The Object Complement. 
Examine the objects in the following sentences : 

1. My friend surprised me. 2. We expect Mm to-morrow. 3. Did 
the stick strike you ? 4. The President expects to be there. 5. Fred 
enjoys sliding on the ice. 6. Your brother hopes to see you. 7. Your 
brother hopes that he shall see you. 8. 1 do not know when we shall 
return. 9. The teacher said, ''Study your lesson.''^ 

In the first three sentences, the object is a 'pronoun; in 
the next three, the object is a phrase; in the last three, the 
object is a clause. It will be seen, then, that the object, 
like the subject, is either a noun, a pronoun, or one or more 
words used as a noun. In other words, the object is always 
substantive in office. 

A verb may have two or more objects; as, 

10. My mother called Lucy and me. 11. The horse eats hay, oats, and 
barley. 12. He intends to come here to-day and to go there to-morrow. 

Two or more verbs may have the same object; as, 

13. The merchant buys and sells country produce. 14. We picked, 
^prepared, and ate the fruit. 

Two or more verbs may have two or more objects; as, 

15. We fought and conquered our enemies and our oppressors. 16. I 
found and rescued my books, my pictures, and my papers. 

Remark. — A verb having an object complement is called a Transitive 
Verb. 

Exercise : 

In the stories in Lesson 16 select the transitive verbs, 
and tell whether their objects are nouns or pronouns. 



Jyesson 2/. 

The Object Complement. 
Exercises : 

a, In the following sentences select the verbs that have 



ANALYSIS. 25 

objects, and state whether the object is a noun, a pronoun, 
a phrase, or a clause: 

1. He took no notice, but looked as if he had not heard the words. 
2. The men who do the greatest things do them by steady, unremitting 
toil. 3. I hope to find my friend much better, 4. He knows where we 
are going. 5. The janitor forgot to ring the bell. 6. I had never before 
seen such swimming. 7. You know that I do not want money. 8. 
"What can be the matter?" exclaimed Mr. Brown. 9. The warrior 
bowed his crested head and tamed his heart of fire. 10. He appointed 
the moon for seasons; the sun knoweth his going down. 

b. Select and classify the objects in the first four para- 
graphs of your last reading lesson. 

Zfcsson 22, 

Analysis of Sentences. 
Exercise : 

Classify the following sentences as in Lesson 17; give the 
predicate, the subject, and the object in each sentence and 
clause, and state whether the subjects and objects are nouns, 
pronouns, phrases, or clauses: 

Model : 

" I do not know where my brother put the book." 

This is a declarative sentence, containing two statements : Entire 
predicate — do not know where my brother put the book; Word-predi- 
cate — do know ; Subject — /, a pronoun; Object — where my brother 
put the book, a clause ; Entire predicate of object clause — put the book 
where ; Word-predicate — put ; Entire subject of object clause — my 
brother; Word-subject — brother, a noun; Object — book, a noun. 

1. Galileo taught that the earth revolves. 2. The owl kills mice and 
eats them. 3. llegulus lost his life, but kept his word. 4. Did you have 
a good time? 5. " Good morning," said the young frog. 6. Columbus 
thought he had reached an island near Asia. 7. Ladies and gentlemen, 
you will now elect your ofiicers. 8. That we had succeeded, pleased 
and encouraged him. 9. Jack marched up, took the rope in his teeth, 
and rang the bell again. 

10. Go ring the bells, and fire the guns, 
And fling the starry banner out. 



26 COMPOSITION— REVIEW. 

11. What a pleasant picture of an evening home scene the poet 
Cowper draws ! 12. The Spaniards now resolved to make their way to 
Cuba. 13. Now, I propose that we build a wharf. 14. What do you 
say, lads ?' Shall we do it ? • 

15. With slow tread and still tread, 
He scans the tented line, 
And he counts the battery guns 
By the gaunt and shadowy pine. 



Zesson 2S, 

Composition in Review. 

After writing the following sentences, underline the 
entire predicate twice and the entire subject once; put the 
objects in brackets, and indicate the word-predicate by a 
dagger (f), and word, phrase, or clause subject, by a double 
dagger (j). 

Example : 

t t t t 

When our friends return, Mary and I will invite [them] to supper . 

Exercises : 

a. Write a declarative sentence in which the subject is a 
pronoun and the object a phrase. 

b. Write an interrogative sentence in which there is a 
compound predicate and a noun object. 

c. Write an exclamatory sentence in which both the sub- 
ject and the object are nouns. 

d. Write a declarative sentence in which the subject is a 
pronoun, and the object a phrase. 

e. Write a declarative sentence in which the subject is a 
clause, and the object a pronoun. 

f. Write an imperative sentence in which the object is a 
phrase. 

g. Write a sentence which shall have a noun as the sub- 
ject and a noun as the object. 

h. Write an interrogative sentence in which the object is 
a clause. 



ATTRIBUTE COMPLEMENT. 27 

i. Write an interrogative sentence in which the subject 
is a noun and the predicate has two objects. 

j. Answer the question that you have just made by a 
negative sentence in which the subject is a pronoun. 



Jjesson 24^. 

The Attribute Complement. 

We will now return to the phrases and sentences given 
in Lessons 1 and 3, and examine some of those that have 
another kind of complement. 

1. The farmer is tired. 2. Unless the weather is pleasant. 3. When 
the horse grows old. 

1. The tall oak was once a small acorn. 2. If James is a brave hoy. 
3. John Gilpin was a citizen. 

In the first three, the complement is a word describing 
the subject; that is, giving some quality of the real thing 
which the subject names; thus, 

'pleasant weather ; tired farmer ; old horse. 

In the next three, the complement is a noun giving an- 
other name to, or identifying, the subject. 

Such complements as the above are called attributes of 
the subject^ because they either describe or identify the 
subject. 

Remark. — An attribute is any property, or quality, of the person or 
thing. 

Exercise: 

Select the attributes in the following sentences, and in 
the sentences of Lessons 5 and 6. 

1. Harold is industrious. 2. This child's face is interesting. 3. Is 
hehrnve? 4. Be hrave, children. (Notice the use of the word children.) 
5. He is a man, 6, Is he a soldier? 



28 ATTRIBUTE COMPLEMENT. 

Jyesson 2o, 

The Attribute Complement. 
Exercise : 

a. Give the predicate and the subject of each of the fol- 
lowing sentences, and examine carefully the office and 
form of the italicized attributes : 

1. The children are happy. 2. Henry is in trouble. (= troubled) 
3. The patient seems to be better. 4. Everything shall be as you wish. 
5. This rose is beautiful. 6. The doctor is at work. (= working) 

The above attributes all describe the subjects, but have 
different forms. In numbers 07ie and five, the attribute is 
a WORD describing the subject; in two, three, and six, the 
attribute is a phrase describing the subject; in four, the 
attribute is a clause describing the subject. 

b. In the same manner, examine the following sentences: 

1. It is she. 2. Our amusement was playing croquet. 3. The question 
is, what to do with it. 4. The fact is, he stole the inoney. 5. James is my 
brother. 6. My hope was, that we should arrive before sunset. 7. The 
trouble is to answer your question. 8, My wish is, that you should dine 
with me. 

In these sentences, each attribute identifies the subject, 
that is, tells who or what the subject is. In numbers one 
and five, the attribute is a word identifying the subject; in 
numbers two, three, and seven, the attribute is a phrase 
identifying the subject; in numbers four, six, and eight, the 
attribute is a clause identifying the subject. 

From these examples, you will see : 

(1) That, inform, the attribute is either a word, a phrase, 
or a clause. 

(2) That the office of an attribute is either to describe or 
to identify the subject. 

Exercise : 

a. Select and classify the attributes in the following sen- 
tences : 



DIAGRAMS. 



29 



1. Tliis book is a present. 2. The pudding is too sweet. 3. The chil- 
dren were at play. 4. Your child is in danger. 5. My intention is to 
complete the work to-day. 6. Her work was sewing on buttons. 7. 
Jennie appears to be satisfied. 8. The subject of debate is, Which is the 
best plan ? 

Jjessofi 26, 

Diagra:\is. 

It is often convenient to show the relations of the different 
parts of a sentence so that they may be recognized at a glance. 

When this is done by the use of lines, dots, and position, 
it is called diagraming. Notice how the relations are shown 
in the following sentences: 

(Subject.) (Predicate.) 

Dogs hark. Do^g bark 



Cats catch mice. 



Cats 



(Object complement.) 
catch mice 



Gold is yellow. 



(Attribute complement.) 
Gold I is \ yellow 



Wolves and dogs bark. 



Dogs hark and hite. 



Gold is bright and yellow. 



Cats catch rats and mice. 



(Compound subject.) 
Wolves 



I bark 



(Compound predicate.) 
bark 



Gold 



Dogs 



^ 



bite 



(Compound attribute.) 
bright 



^^ 



yellow 



Cats , catch 



(Compound object.) 
rats 

<^^ 



-^ 



80 ANALYSIS. 



Exercise 



Diagram the following. Capitalize the first word of the 
sentence: 

Words are signs. 

Thoughts and feelings are realities. 
We imitate deeds and language. 
Satin is smooth and pliable. 



Ijesson 27. 

Analysis of Sentences. 



Exercise : 



Classify the following sentences; give the predicate, the 
subject, the object, if any, and the attribute, if any, in each 
sentence and clause; and state the form and the office of 
the attributes : 

Model : 

••You may be a smart boy, but you must be honest, too." 

This is a declarative sentence, containing two statements; Entire 
predicate of first clause — may he a smart boy; Word-predicate — may 
be; Subject — you — a pronoun; Attribute of subject— 60?/ — a noun; 
Entire predicate of second clause — must be honest, too; Word-predi- 
cate — must be; Subject — you — a pronoun; Attribute of subject — 
honest — an adjective. 

1. Jack was an idle fellow who would not work. 2. Jack was idle, 
and would not do any work. 3. Thy brother was dead, and is alive 
again. 4. I ama Thracian and a soldier. 5. Unarmed and unattended 
walked the Czar. 6. It was summer, and the flowers were in bloom. 
7. You were born a king, and I was born a private man. 8. The enter- 
prise proved too difficult for Raleigh. 9. Now his eldest son was in the 
field. 10. To be blamed was my reward. 11. My reward was to be 
blamed. 12. His best exercise was leaping the bar. 13. The wonder is, 
how he escaped. 14. Who can that man be? 15. This subject is to be 
discussed. 16. The thing that you have always wanted has been a set, 
steady, constant purpose. 17. I firmly believed that the expedition 
would be successful. 18. Where are the flowers? 19. The chief art of 
learning is to attempt but little at a time. 20. Nothing that we do wil- 
lingly is troublesome. 



COMPOSITION-REVIEW. 31 

J/esson 28. 

Composition Exercises in Review. 

a. Fill the blanks in the following, as indicated by the 
words in parenthesis ; then analyze the resulting sentences, 
as in Lesson 27: 

(a<lj.) (adj.) (noun") 

1. Is it not ? 

(noun) (phrase) (pronoun) (noun) 

2. When was I broke . 

(pronoun) (noun) (noun) (pronoun) 

3. That is , but — has borrowed . 

(noun) (adj.) (noun) 

4. was a . 

(adj.) (adj.) (noun) (noun) 

5. was called . 

(clause) (noun) 

6. was my . 

(phrase) (phrase) 
7. is . 



(phrase) (clause) 
is 



(noun) (noun) (adj.) (adj.) (adj.) 

9. and are . . and . 

(pronoun) (pronoun) (phrase) 
10. and are . 

b. Write an interrogative sentence with a phrase attribute. 

c. Write a negative sentence with a clause attribute. 

d. Write a declarative sentence with a phrase subject and 
a phrase attribute. 

e. W^rite a declarative sentence with a clause subject and 
a noun attribute. 

f. Write an exclamatory sentence with a pronoun as at- 
tribute. 

g. Write an imperative sentence with a phrase attribute. 



Zesson 29, 

Modifiers of the Predicate. 
The Predicate and the Subject are called the Principal 



82 MODIFIERS OF THE PREDICATE. 

Parts of the sentence, because both are required in order to 
form a sentence. There may be many other words in a sen- 
tence besides the principal parts, but the office of the addi- 
tional words is, generally, to modify or to limit the thought 
expressed iDy the principal parts. 

Remark. — The Object Complement, or Object, as it performs an impor- 
tant office in the sentence, and yet does not directly modify or limit either the 
subject or the predicate, is considered by some grammarians as one of the 
principal parts of the sentence. 

Select the principal parts of the following sentences, and 
then try to discover the office of the additional words : 

1. Mary played well. 4. When will he come? 

2. How did you succeed? 5. Bring your book here. 

S. It rained yesterday. 6. TFAere did you find water? 

In each of these sentences, there is a word which adds 
something to the idea expressed by the word-predicate, and 
which is therefore called a modifier of the predicate. In the 
first and the second sentences, the additional word tells or 
asks how; in the third and fourth, when; in the fifth and 
sixth, where. As these words modify verbs, they are 
called adverbs, the word adverb meaning added to a verb. 

Diagram. 

Mary , played (Adverbial adjunct.) 



She , walked 




She walked slowly along. 



Exercise : 

In the following, select the words that modify predicates, 
stating what they modify, and how: 

1. Where did you fill your basket so soon ? 2. Study your lessons 
carefully to-night. 3. How merrily the sparrows twitter and how hard 
they work! 4. The boy and his dog marched merrily along. 5. Where 
shall wisdom be found ? 6. I will gladly help you. . 7. The boy took off 



ADVERBIAL MODIFIERS-PHRASE AND CLAUSE. 33 

his hat when he came in, and answered my questions promptly and^ 
respectfully. 8. From San Salvador, Columbus sailed southward. 
9. Overhead hang the long, fan-like branches. 10. The fox looked 
wistfully on while the crane coolly ate up the supper. 

[Note to the Teacher.— Do not try to have the pupil diagram any- 
thing but word elements at this stage of advancement. Remember 
that sentential analysis should i^recede diagraming.] 

Zesson SO, 

Adverbial Modifiers — Phrase and Clause. 

We will now vary some of the sentences already given by 
using different modifiers of the predicate: 

1. Mary played with care. 

2. It rained in the night. 

3. Bring the book to me. 

4. Mary played as her teacher directed. 

5. It rained while we slept. 

6. Bring your book where you can see better. 

In the first three sentences, the word predicate is modi- 
fied by a phrase telling how, when, or w^here. 

In the next three, by a clause telling how, when, or where. 

Phrases and clauses used to modify verbs, have the ofhce 
of adverbs, and are called adverbial modifiers, or adverbial 
adjuncts. 

Exercise : 

Select the adverbial modifiers in the following sentences, 

classify them as words, phrases, or clauses, and tell what 

each does in the sentence : 

1. When the tide has gone out, we will hunt for shells. 2. At the 
appointed time the boys met. 3. To-morrow we may catch fish at our 
ease. 4. As she reached farther, she slipped and fell into the water. 5. 
In the noisy street, my pleasant face you'll meet. 6. Bruno at once 
sprang down and seized the reins in his teeth. 7. Long ago, in a land 
beyond the sea, lived a poor wood-cutter. 8. One Christmas eve the 
children were sitting with their father and mother before the bright 
warm fire. 

9. Pleasantly breaks the light 

Down through the leafy bough. 
3-G 



34 ADVERBIAL MODIFIERS. 

10. After this David had to move from one place to another to 
escape from Saul. 11. The dog set off at full speed down the mountain 
side. 12. There is a story of a horse that took hold of a pump-handle 
with his teeth and pumped water into a trough when he wanted to 
drink. 

13. Snow-drop nearly fainted 

Because the room was hot, 
And went away before the rest 
With sweet Forget-me-not. 
14. When I'm a man, a man, 

I'll be a shoe-maker if I can— and I can! 
I'll sit on a bench with my last held so, 
And in and out shall my needles go. 
I'll sew so strong that my work shall wear 
Till nothing is left but my stitches there. 



Jjesson Sf. 

Adverbial Modifiers. 



Exercise 



Choose some story from your Reader, and select and 
classify the adverbial modifiers in the first three para- 
graphs. 

Direction for Punctuation. — When a clause is placed 
before the word it modifies, it should be set off by a comma. 
For examples see numbers one and four of the sentences in 
Lesson 30. 

Composition Exercise : 

a. Write three sentences in which the predicate is mod- 
ified by a word. 

b. Write three in which it is modified by a phrase. 

c. Write three in which it is modified by a clause. 

d. Use the following in sentences as adverbial modifiers, 
using as many as you please in the same sentence : 

Anywhere, while I slept, unless you go, kindly, in time, to please 
you, soon, with ease, while you are gone, to recite our lesson, rapidly, 
indifferently, under the bridge, when jom wish, yonder, if they per- 
severe, from your house, at that time, after the fire, without you, by 
doing this. 



ADJUNCTS OF SUBJECT AND OBJECT. 35 

J^esso?i S2, 

Adjuncts of the Subject and Object. 

Exercise : 

Select the predicate, the subject, and the object, in the 
following sentences, and determine the use of the remaining 
words : 

1. Kind friends helped the poor old man. 2. The little boy ate that 
red apple. 3. A selfish man has few friends. 

In these sentences there are words added to the subjects 
and to the objects. Some of these words, as, Hnd, 'poor, 
old, little, red, selfish, tell a quality of the real thing named 
by the noun to which they belong ; others, as the, that, a, 
few, point out, or limit the meaning of the noun. 

Words used to qualify, i. e., to limit or describe, nouns or 
pronouns, are called adjectives; therefore, all words, phrases, 
and clauses used to qualify nouns or pronouns are adjective 
adjuncts. 

1. Henri/s horses ate my barley. 2, Mr. Brown keeps ladies' and 
children's shoes. 

In these sentences the subjects and the objects are lim- 
ited by nouns denoting either ownership^ as in number 1: 
or kind, as in number 2. As they limit nouns, they are 
adjective in office; or in other words, they are nouns used 
adjectively. 

A word that qualifies a substantive is called an adjective. 

As the subject is always substantive in office, the attri- 
bute is always adjective in office. 

Remark. — 1. TJie attribute is sometimes placed before the subject; as, 
Happy are the children. Here he is. 

2. In such sentences as 

He is here, They are in the house, 
the italicized words, though they seem adverbial, are really adjective in office, 
describing the subject through the predicate. Many grammarians, however, 
prefer to consider them adverbial modifiers. 

3. Adverbs modify; adjectives qualify. 



36 ADJECTIVE ADJUNCTS-PHRASE AND CLAUSE. 

Exercise : 

Select the adjuncts of the subjects and of the objects in 
the following sentences, telling what each one does. 

Model : 

'• This little boy found my red shawl." 

This limits hoy by pointing out ; little describes hoy by telling size ; 
my limits shawl by telling ownership; red describes shawl by telling 
color. 

Diagram. 
boy ; found | shawl 

V^ \^ (Adjective V ^ 

adjuncts.) \ \ 

1. The brave soldier received a severe wound. 2. Every man carried 
a square box. 3. A babbling brook, clear and cool, bounded our garden 
on the south. 4. I gave John's old coat to a beggar. 5. Helen has 
pretty, brown eyes. (3. The rich old man gave a large diamond to his 
son. 



Zesso7i 33. 

Adjective Adjuncts — Phrase and Clause. 

In the following sentences, the italicized adjuncts of the 
subjects and objects are phrases or clauses used adjectively: 

1. I see a boy running past. 

2. The man in the hoat saw the fish in the water. 

3. The fruit to he hrought will refresh us. 

4. The sick girl took the medicine hrought hy the doctor. 

5. The pupil, u'^o was industrious, won the prize that his teacher offered. 

6. The place where the house stood is now covered with trees. 

Exercise : 

Select and classify the adjuncts of the subjects and of 
the objects in the following sentences, and state what each 
one tells of the word to which it belongs: 

7. The house on the hill was burned. 8. The house that stood on 
the hill was burned. 9. His patience will bring a sure reward. 10. 
Learn the same lesson that you had yesterday. 11. Crusoe had no mill 



ADJUNCTS OF ATTRIBUTE. 37 

to grind his grain. 12. The beggar that came to the door yesterday has 
come again to-day. 13. We kept the clock that had belonged to our 
grandfather. 14. The remark that he made did not please me. 
15. She wears a quaint little scarlet cap, 

And a little green bowl she holds in her lap. 



Ij ess 071 3^, 

Composition Exercises : 

a. Whenever possible, change the phrases in the sen- 
tences in Lesson 33 to clauses, and the clauses to phrases; 
thus, 

(1) I see a hoy running past. (Phrase) 

I see a boy who is running past. (Clause) 
(5) The pupil who ivas industrious, won the prize that his teacher 
offered. (Clauses) 

The pupil, being industrious, won the prize offered by his 
teacher. (Phrases) 

b. Write three sentences of your own containing phrases 
used as adjective adjuncts, and three containing clauses 
used as adjective adjuncts; then reverse them as above. 



Ijesso7i So , 

Adjective Adjuncts of the Attribute. 

When the attribute is a substantive, that is, when it is a 
word identifying the subject (see Lesson 24), it may itself 
have the same classes of adjuncts as the subject or the 
ol)ject; mz., (1) adjectives, (2) nouns, or pronouns denot- 
ing owTiership or kind, and (3) phrases or clauses. 

Examples : 

1. These are good apples. 3. He is a man to be respected. 

2. This is the baby's doll. 4. He is the man that helped us. 

Exercise : 

a. Select and classify the adjuncts of the attribute in the 
following: 



88 COMPOSITION— EXPANDING SENTENCES. 

1. Jack was an idle fellow who would not work. 2. This was my 
reward. 3. They are good friends. 4. This is a trap to catch foxes. 5. 
What he needs, is our help. 6. It is a very good arrangement. 7. Man 
is the only animal that has a hand. 8. A mighty man is he. 9. This is 
the way to do it. 10. The sugar-cane is a native of the far east. 11. 
The constitution is the highest law of the land. 

b. Select the attributes that have adjective adjuncts, in 
the sentences in Lessons 5 and 6. 



Zesson S6. 

Composition and Analysis — Expanding Sentences. 
Exercise : 

Give the word-predicate, the subject, and the object or 
the attribute, if any, in the following sentences. Expand 
each sentence by adding adjuncts to one or more of these 
parts; classify the adjuncts, and tell what each does. 

Model : 

Donkey found skin. 

Predicate— /otmc?. Subject — donkey. Object — sTcin. 

Expanded. — A long-eared donkey once found a lion's skin that was 
hanging in his master's shed. 

A limits donkey by pointing out ; Long-eared describes donkey by tell- 
ing kind; Once modifies found by telling when ; A limits skin by point- 
ing out; Lion's describes skin by telling kind; The clause that was 
hanging in his master's shed limits skin by pointing out ; The predicate 
of this clause is was hanging; Subject — that. The phrase in his masters 
shed modifies was hanging by telling where. 

1. Horse was eating grass. 2. Robin built nest. 3. Prince traveled. 
4. Bees are insects. 5. Man lived. 6. Men left work. 7. Grandfather 
was man. 8. Bees make honey. 9. Peas were growing. 10. Books are 
friends. 



Zesson S7, 

The Form of Sentences. 
(Simple, Complex, and Compound.) 
We have seen, in several instances, that a clause may be 
used as an adjunct, either adjective or adverbial; thus, 



FORM OF SENTENCES. 39 

1. "We will ride wheji the wind goes down. 

2. I found my book ivhere I left it. 

3. As she reached farther, she slipped and fell into the water. 

4. The pupil who ivas industrious, won the prize that was offered. 

5. The place where the house stood is now covered with trees. 

Clauses used as adjuncts are called dependent clauses, or 
subordinate clauses, because they depend upon some other 
word. In the above sentences, the italicized clauses are 
dependent. The other clause in each sentence is called the 
principal clause, or independent clause, because it contains 
the most important assertion, and because the other clause 
or clauses depend upon it. 

When a sentence contains one principal clause, and one 
or more dependent clauses, it is called a complex sentence. 

The above are complex sentences. 

Sometimes a sentence contains two or more clauses of 
equal rank, no one being dependent on another; as, 

1. You may go l)ut I will stay. 

2. The grass is green and the flowers are beautiful. 

3. You may speak your piece or Robert may sing a song. 

When a sentence contains two or more independent 
clauses, it is called a compound sentence. 

The above are compound sentences. 

In a compound sentence there may be one or more de- 
pendent clauses belonging to the principal clauses. 

Thus, we may add dependent clauses to the last sentence: 

You may speak the piece that you like best, or Robert may sing 
tlie song that I taught him. 

This sentence, however, is still compound, because it 
contains two independent clauses. 

A sentence containing a single assertion, that is, but one 
combination of subject and predicate, is called a simple 
sentence; as. 

That pretty little stone is a carnelian. (See also the sentences 
in Lesson 5.) 



40 COMPOSITION— REVIEW. 

Remark. — A simple sentence may contain any number of words and 
phrases, but it never contains a clause. 

Remark. — Any part of a simple sentence may be compound. {See 
diagrams in Lesson 26.) 

Remark. — Any substantive clause is subordinate to the whole sentence; 
and any sentence containing a substantive clause, either as subject, attribute, 
or object, is considered complex. 

Exercise : 

Classify according to form all the sentences in Lessons 22 
and 27, and give reasons. 



Composition in Review. 



Exercises : 



(a) Write four simple sentences. 

(b) Write four complex sentences in which the dependent 
clause shall be an adjunct: 

(1) Of the subject of the principal clause. 

(2) Of tiie predicate of the principal clause. 

(3) Of the object in the principal clause. 

(4) Of the attribute in the principal clause. 

(c) Write three simple sentences, then form a compound 
sentence by uniting the three simple sentences. 

(d) Write a compound sentence consisting of two clauses. 

(e) Expand your first simple sentence by adding an ad- 
verbial clause. 

(f) Expand another simple sentence by adding an adjec- 
tive clause. 

(g) Write a complex sentence in which an adverbial 
clause is placed before the word it modifies. 

(h) Write a compound sentence consisting of four clauses, 
(i) Write a complex sentence in which there are three 
dependent clauses. 



ADVERBIAL MODIFIERS. 41 

Note. — After writing the above sentences, draw tivo lines under each prin- 
cipal clause and one line binder each dependent clause. 

(j) Write a complex sentence having a subject clause. 
(Is.) Write a complex sentence having an object clause. 
(1) Write a complex sentence having an attribute clause. 

Zesso7i 39, 

More About Adverbial Modifiers. 

Analyze the following sentences; that is, name the prin- 
cipal parts, then the dependent words, or modifiers. 
Examine carefully the italicized words, and try to deter- 
mine their use. 

1. We walked very slowly. 

2. The weather is delightfully cool. 

3. Very few men would have been so brave. 

4. My teacher spoke more kindlj' than I deserved. 

5. Many more flowers can be found. 

It will be seen that each of the italicized words modifies 
some other word that is itself a modifier or adjunct of one 
of the principal parts. Thus slowly modifies the word- 
predicate ivall'ed, and very modifies slowly by telling how 
slowly ; cool qualifies the subject iveather, and delightfully 
modifies cool by telling how cool. 

In number one and number four, the italicized modifier 
belongs to an adverb ; in number ttvo, number three, and 
number ^re, to an adjective. 

A word that modifies an adjective or an adverb is called 
an adverb. 

Remark. — Thus it is seen that an adverb may modify a verb, an 
adjective, or an adverb. 

Exercise : 

a. Select the modifiers of adjectives or adverbs in the fol- 
lowing, telling what they modify, and how ; also tell what 
the word that they modify does in the sentence. 



42 PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES. 

Diagram the sentences thus: 



We 



walked 



This 




day 




1. She was too happy to speak, 2. The evemng is quite cool. 3. 
This lot is not so large as ours. 4. It rains more frequently in that 
country. 5. You came too late to see the procession. 6. The house is 
too old for service. 7. It was thought very strange. 8. This is an un- 
usually cold day. 9. Henry rises very early. 10. Henry is a very early 



b. Compose and analyze five sentences containing modi- 
fiers of adjectives or adverbs, underlining the modified 
adjective or adverb once, and its modifier twice. 



Jjesson ^0* 

Peepositional Phrases. 

Let us now examine more closely some of the phrases 
that have been used as principal parts or as adjuncts: 

1. We will go tnio the house. 2, The house on the hill was hurned. 
3. I laid a book on the table. 4. Give the book to me. 5. The gardener 
picked a box of apples. 6. The boy beside me asked a question. 

You will see that each italicized phrase is made up of a 
noun or a pronoun, and a word which connects this noun 
or pronoun to the word which the phrase modifies or limits. 

Thus, in the first sentence, the phrase, into the house, is 
an adverbial adjunct modifying the verb will go, by telling 
lohere. 

Into connects the noun house to the verb will go. 

In the second sentence, the phrase, on the hill, is an ad- 
jective adjunct limiting the noun house. 

On connects the noun hill to the subject house. 



PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES. 43 

In the same way, analyze the phrases in the remaining 
sentences. 

The connecting word in each of these phrases is called a 
preposition, because it is placed before the nomi or pronoun, 
the word preposition meaning placed before. The noun or 
pronoun that the preposition connects to some other word 
in the sentence, is called the object of the preposition. 

Note. — The word to which the noun or pronoun is connected is of more 
importance, of higher rank in the sentence, than the object of the preposition. 

Exercise : 

Name the objects of the prepositions in the above sen- 
tences. 

Remark. — The term object is applied in this case because of the form 
that the pronoun takes when it has this office. Thus, we say by me, and 
not by I ; to Mm, and not to he. 

The object of the preposition may be described or limited 
by adjuncts; thus, 

1. We will go into the brown house. 

2. The barn on that high green hill was burned. 

Diagramed : 




These additional words, however, are not essential parts 
of the phrase. 

Phrases that are introduced by prepositions are called 
prepositional phrases. 

Exercise : 

a. Name the prepositional phrases in the sentences at the 
beginning of this lesson. 

b. Select and analyze the prepositional phrases in the fol- 
lowing: 



44 VERBAL PSRASES. 

Model: 

Lay your books on the table. 

On the table is a prepositional phrase in form and adverbial in office, 
modifying the verb lay by telling where. The preposition 07i connects 
its object table to lay. Table is limited by the adjective adjunct the. 

1. A seed of the beautiful mistletoe was separated from its parent. 
2. At the age of twelve, Franklin was apprenticed to his brother James, 
who was a printer. 3. A large number of monkeys will sometimes get 
together in the morning, in the woods. 4. After dinner we will walk 
to town. 5. School opened on Monday, at 9 o'clock a. m. 6. In all the 
surrounding fields there grew fine crops of wheat and barley. 7. The 
long, slender boughs of the willow are the favorite resort of the oriole. 
8. Long ago, in a castle in the heart of the German forest, lived a proud 
nobleman, who, on one particular Sunday morning, took it into his 
head to go hunting. 

9. And little brown bird in the sycamore tree, 
You have sung pretty songs all day tome; 
Now go to your rest. 
In your nice soft nest; 
I shall see you again in the morning light. 
10. A small remnant of cheese was divided among the famished 
children. 

Diagram 1^ 3, 4, and 7. 

Verbal Phrases. 

In the sentences studied in preceding lessons, we have 
also had a second class of phrases, such as the following : 

1. Jumping rope is good exercise. 

2. We saw Henry eating an apple. 

3. I found the horse tied fast. 

In these phrases, the principal words, jumping, eating^ 
tied, are words very much like verbs, but they do not assert, 
and, therefore, are not verbs. Thus, I am jumping, Henry 
was eating, the horse was tied, are assertions ; but, / jump- 
ing, Henry eating, Horse tied, are not assertions. 

Words which come from and resemble verbs, and yet do 
not assert, are called verbals. 



VERBAL PHRASES. 45 

A phrase in wliich the principal word is a verbal, is 
called a verbal phrase. 

Some verbal phrases have another form, as in the fol- 
lowing : 

1. 1 liope to see you. 2. To earn my living is my ambition. 

In such cases, the verbal is made up of two words — to 
see, to earn. 

In a verbal phrase, the verbal may l)e modified by some 
other word; as, 

to IV rite well; running fast; 
or it may have an object; as, 

To see you eating an apple; 
or an attribute complement; as. 

Being rich ; to be rich. 



H 



•jng, apple \ eat , apple 

\ ing \ rich \ be \ rich 



There are, then, two classes of phrases; namely, preposi- 
tional phrases, of which the principal words are a preposi- 
tion and its object, and verbal phrases, of which the principal 
part is a verbal, with its complement, if there be one. 

The introductory word in a phrase is called the leader. 
In a prepositional phrase, the leader is a preposition; in a 
verbal phrase, the leader is a verbal. 

Remark. — A verbal introduced hy to is called an infinitive. 
The to of the infinitive is sometimes understood; as 

Who saw her eat the apple ? = [to] eat. 
She was seen to eat the apple. (Expressed.) 

Analysis. — To eat the apple is a verbal phrase, of which the 
leader is the infinitive to eat, and its object is the noun apple. 



46 THE CLAUSE— CONNECTIVES. 

Remark. — A verbal not having to either expressed or understood is 
called a participle. 

Having eaten the apple, she counted the seeds. 

Having eaten the apple is a verbal phrase, of which the leader is 
the participle having eaten and its object the noun apple. 

Exercise : 

Select, classify, and give the office of the phrases in the 
following sentences; then analyze each phrase, according 
to the model last given: 

1. The boys are swimming in the river. 2. The books to be studied 
next are these. 3. Get a box of apples, 4. I hope to see you. 5. The 
man sitting there is a lawyer. 6. To write well is a valuable accomplish- 
ment. 7. 1 enjoy watching the bathers. 8. I came to ask you. 9. We 
saw the men mowing grass. 10. John came limping along. 11. Into the 
street the piper stepped. 12. The hat on the table is yours. 13. My wish 
is to receive instruction. 



IJesson j^2. 

The Clause — Connective Pronouns. 

Let ns now return to some of the sentences already 
studied, and examine more closely the clauses used as modi- 
fiers, observing especially the office of the introductory word 
in the clause. 

The pupil who was industrious, won the prize that his teacher offered. 

In this sentence, the subject pupil is limited by the 
clause, who was industrious. The clause is connected to 
pupil by the pronoun who. The predicate of the dependent 
clause is was industrious; the subject of the dependent 
clause is the pronoun who. 

It will thus be seen that the pronoun loho has a double 
office; first, as a connective, connecting the dependent clause 
to the word which the clause limits; second, as the subject 
of the dependent clause. Again, the object prize is limited 
by the clause, that his teacher offered. The clause is con- 
nected to prize by the pronoun that. In the dependent 



CONNECTIVE PRONOUNS. 47 

clause, offered is the predicate, teacher is the suhject, and 
that is the object. Therefore that has a double office in the 
sentence ; first, as a connective; second, as the object in the 
dependent clause. 

A pronoun that connects a dependent clause to the word 
which the clause limits, and, at the same time, performs 
some substantive office in the dependent clause, is called 
a connective pronoun. 

remark , did please i me 

^t — \~ 

he . made , that 

Exercises : 

a. You may now take the sentences that you made as a 
composition exercise in Lesson 36, and select the clauses 
that are introduced by connective pronouns. Tell what 
word each clause limits, and give the two offices of the con- 
nective pronoun. 

b. Do the same with the following sentences: 

1. The only man whom I was acquainted with was absent. 2. The 
remark that he made did not please me. 3. Learn the lesson that was 
given to you yesterday. 4. Learn the lesson that I gave to you yester- 
day. 5. Jack was an idle fellow, who w^ould not w^ork. 6. The house 
that stood on the hill was burned. 7. The soldier whose wound was so 
severe recovered. 8. I expect to find the book that you lost. 9. This is 
the person whom you wished to see. 10. He spoke of my brother, who 
was then absent. 

J^esson J^3, 

The Clause — Connective Adverbs. 

There is a second class of words which connect depend- 
ent clauses to the words which the clauses modify, and, at 
the same time, perform another office. 

I found my book where / lejl it. 



48 CONNECTIVE ADVERBS. 

In this sentence, where I left it is an adverbial clause 
modifying the verb found. Where connects the dependent 
clause to /oM?id. It also modifies the verbs found and left 
by showing place, and is, therefore, an adverb. 

We shall ride wlien the wind goes doivn. 

When connects the dependent clause, when the wind goes 
down, to the verb shall ride. It also modifies the verbs shall 
and goes, and so is adverbial in office. 

A word that connects a clause to the word that the 
clause modifies, and, at the same time, performs the office 
of an adverb, is called a connective adverb. 

I , found I book 



^^'""■^rT"^"^^^ (Here where equals in the place in 

\^^ \^ which. The first phrase modifies 

\© found, the second modifies left.) 

I 1 left I it 

Exercise : 

In the following sentences, select the clauses which are 
introduced by connective adverbs. Tell what word the 
clause modifies, and give the two offices of the connective 
adverb. Diagram each sentence: 

1. A plant sprang up where we had planted the seed. 2. We will 
start whenever you are ready. 3. Do good while you can. 4. I did as 
you requested. 5. My dog foLows me wherever I go. 6. The sun set 
while we were in the woods. 7. Do as I do. 8. When the cat is away, 
the mice will play. 



Ijesso7z J^J^. 

Conjunctions. 

We have now selected and studied three kinds of con- 
nectives : 

First, the preposition, which connects its object to the 
word which the prepositional phrase limits or modifies; 

Second, the connective pronoun, which connects a depend- 



CONJUNCTIONS. 



49 



ent clause to the word which the clause limits, and, at the 
same time, has some substantive office in the dependent 
clause; 

Third, the connective adverb, which connects a dependent 
clause to the word which the clause modifies, and, at the 
same time, itself modifies one or more verbs. 

There is one other class of connectives which connect, but 
have no other office. 

Sometimes connectives of this class connect words; as, 

1. Jennie A2fD I go to school. 3. My teacher is kind but firm. 

2. Bring me a hook or a slate. 4. Go and fiiid your hat. 

5. They fought like brave men long and well. 

Jennie 



firm 



They 



fouorht 



teacher 





Sometimes they connect phrases ; as, 

G. The lecturer spoke of Rome anj of Paris. 

7. You will find John in the harn or in the shed. 

8. Learn to sj^eak distinctly and to write legibly. 

9. Hunting for the cows and driving them home took an hour. 



lecture 



spoke 




Sometimes they connect clauses : 

10. Twill go IF you are willing. 

11. The sailor said that he had been wrecked twice. 

12. The crops are good though but little rain fell. 

13. Henry wants to go to school but his father needs him at home. 

14. We shall not sow the seed until rain falls. 

15. Washington was a great general and Jefferson was a great statesman. 
4-G 



50 CONJUNCTIONS. 



Henry , wants 
will go 



S2. 



V> 



but 



you ■ are\willing father , needs , him 



L 
V*^ home 



Connectives like the above, which have no other office in 
the sentence, are called Conjunctions, the word conjunction 
meaning that which joins together. 

Words or phrases connected by a conjunction usually 
have the same office in the sentence. Thus, in the first sen- 
tence, the conjunction connects two subjects of the same 
verb; in the second, two objects of the same verb; in the 
third, two adjectives qualifying the same noun; in the sixth, 
two phrases modifying the same verb, and so on. 

Clauses connected by a conjunction may have a similar 
office, or one may be subordinate to the other. 
Exercise : 

Select the conjunctions in the following sentences, and 

tell what they connect: 

1. My mother called Lucy and me. 2. He is proud that he is a sol- 
dier. (Connects a subordinate clause.) 3. The driver intends to come 
here to-day and to go there to-morrow. 4. The rolling mist came down 
and hid the land. 5. Regulus lost his life but kept his word. 6. I lost 
the train but I found my cloak. 7. Now I propose that we build a wharf. 
8. He will move neither to the right nor to the left. 9. If you would be 
happy, you must be active. 10. The sun is larger than the moon [is 
large]. 11. Washington always decided wisely and justly. 12. The boy 
has no father nor mother. 13. Love not sleep, lest thou come to pov- 
erty. (Connects a subordinate clause.) 



J^esson J^5, 

Independent Parts. 
We have seen that the words in an ordinary sentence 



INDEPENDENT PARTS. 51 

may usually be classified as having one of three offices in 
the sentence; they are principal parts, adjuncts, or con- 
nectires. 

There are sometimes, however, words and phrases used 
that have no grammatical connection with the rest of the 
sentence. These words often add something to the thought 
expressed by the sentence, or help to express the thought 
in a more forcible manner, but as they are not used as 
principal parts, modifiers, or connectives, they are called 
independent parts. 

These independent parts may be : 

(1) Exclamatory words and phrases; as. 

Rush! did you hear a footstep? JMiat a mistake! It is greatly to 
be regretted. What! he a friend! I know he is an enemy. Life! life! 
Only let me live. 

Hush 



you I did hear , footstep 



\ 



Note.— iir»s/i, although clearly a verb of command, is here used as an 
exclamation. 

(2) A name or a title used simply to call the attention 
of the person addressed, or to name the person of whom 
the sentence speaks, without having any other office; as. 

Children, it is time to go. James, attend to your studies. Our 
friends, why do they not help us? Remorseless Time, what power can 
stay him ? 

James 



X I attend 



studies 



%. 



52 SENTENCE BUILDING. 

(3) A noun limited by a verbal phrase, the whole having 
no grammatical connection with the rest of the sentence; as, 

The jury having been selected, the judge proceeded to try the case. 
The teacher coming in just then, our conversation was brought to a 
close. 

This is called an absolute phrase. 



conversation 


, was brought 


\ 


teacher v close 



(The absolute phrase is placed below the verb because it modifies it 
in sense although there is no grammatical connective.) 

(4) Introductory words used for emphasis or for eu- 
phony; as. 

Yes, you may go. No, you must not do it. There is an old man at 
the door. 

Yes There 

you , may go ; or, you , may go man is 




<?^ V door 



I^esson S6. 

Composition — Sentence Building. 

A Simple Sentence Expanded. 

In each of the following sentences, tell what adjunct or 
adjuncts have been added to the preceding sentence to form 
the new sentence, and give the office of each adjunct: 



SENTENCE BUILDING. 53 

1. A man called. 2. A poor old man called. 3. A poor old man 
called at our house. 4. A poor old man called at our house one morn- 
ing. 5. A poor old man called at our house one chilly morning in the 
spring. 6. A poor old man, tired and hungry, called at our house one 
chilly morning in the spring, to ask for a cup of coffee. 

Remaek. — Notice that number six, though very much longer than num- 
ber one, is still a simple sentence. 

Exercise : 

In the same way, expand the following sentences, mak- 
ing at least five new simple sentences from each: 

1. These children went. 2. A friend had money. 3. Our teacher 
saw us. 4. A bee lighted. 5. Sparrows built. 



IjeSS07Z 4.7 r 

Composition — Sentence Building. 

A Complex Sentence Built. 

1. Brother planted trees. 2. My brother planted trees last winter. 

3. My brother planted peach and apple trees in our garden last winter. 

4. ^fy brother planted twenty peach trees and thirty apple trees in our 
garden last winter. 5. My brother, who lives in the city, planted twenty 
peach trees and thirty apple trees in our garden last winter. 6. My 
brother, who lives in the city, planted twenty peach trees and thirty 
apple trees in our garden last winter, when he came to visit us. 

Exercises : 

a. Which of the above sentences are simple? Which are 
complex? Name the independent clauses and the depend- 
ent clauses in the complex sentences. Select the phrase 
adjuncts in the last sentence, and tell what they limit or 
modifv. 

e 

b. Change sentence number six in Lesson 46 to a com- 
plex sentence. 

c. Expand the following according to the above plan, 

making five new sentences from each, three simple and two 

complex: 

1. .Tennie found a bird. 2. A farmer had a horse. 3. Fishes swim. 
4. The boys were riding. 



54 REVIEW QUESTIONS, 

Sentence Building. 
A Compound Sentence Built. 

1. The boys had built a boat. 2. The boys of our school had 
built a large boat. 3. The boys that belonged to our school had 
built a large boat. 4. The boys that belonged to our school had 
built a large boat, in which they often sailed on the lake. 5. The 
boys that belonged to our school had built a large boat, and in it 
they often sailed on the lake. 6. The boys that belonged to our 
school had built a large boat, which they painted red; and in it 
they often sailed on the lake near which the school house stood. 

Exercises : 

a. Select the simple sentences, the complex sentences, 
and the compound sentences, from the above. Give the 
independent clauses and the dependent clauses in the com- 
plex sentences; also in the compound sentences. Select all 
the phrase adjuncts and tell what they limit or modify. 

b. Make six new sentences from each of the following, the 
first two simple, the next two complex, and the last two 
compound. 

1. The soldiers marched. 2. Night came. 3. The prisoner 
thought. 



/ 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. 55 

Review Questions. 

[To the Teacher.— As a test of what the pupil has learned, of his com- 
prehension of what has been presented, and of his ability to use the 
knowledge acquired, the following questions are inserted. Many of 
them are fully answered in the text, but there are others requiring 
the exercise of the judgment and understanding before they can be 
answered. These are far the most valuable. In the text, few defini- 
tions are given, because one definition made is worth ten learned. The 
first is the training of the power of discernment and discrimination, 
the second, of the memory only. 

The answers to these questions should be in complete sentences, and 
if the pupil is taught to weave the question into his answer it gives a 
good training in the use of language.] 

1. For what do we use words? 2. Why should we study words 
and their uses? 3. What is language? 4. What is the purpose of 
studying grammar? 5. What is a sentence? A phrase? A clause? 
Illustrate each by several examples. 6. What is the diflference 
between a phrase and a clause? Betw^een a sentence and a clause? 

7. Name the different kinds of sentences. Give examples of each. 

8. What is the difference between a declarative sentence and an 
interrogative sentence? 9. What is the difference in the way they 
are written? 10. What is the difference between an imperative 
sentence and a declarative sentence? 11. How can you change the 
following declarative sentences into imperative sentences? Boys 
play quietly. Children go to school. 12. Eewrite the following, 
changing them to interrogative sentences, and notice how the change 
is made : Henry may go out to play. William has fomid his knife. 
Julia writes very neatly. 13. How is a declarative sentence changed 
to an interrogative sentence? 14. Give the rule for beginning a 
sentence. 15. Should words in columns begin with capital letters? 

16. Give the rule for ending a declarative sentence; an interroga- 
tive sentence; an imperative sentence; an exclamatory sentence. 

17. When do we use exclamatory sentences? Show^ that an inter- 
rogative sentence may become exclamatory: that a declarative sen- 
tence may become exclamatory. 18. How can you tell a negative 
sentence? 19. How can you change an aflSirmative sentence to a 
negative sentence? Change the following to negative sentences: 
The soldiers have returned. It rained yesterday. Take that hook. 
Is he ready f 

20. ^Tiat is the complement of a verb? 21. Show the difference 
between a complete and an incomplete verb. 22. T\Tiat kind of verbs 



56 REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

take complements? 23. What kind take object complements? 24. 
"When a transitive verb takes a complement, what is the comple- 
ment called? 25. What besides a noun may be the object comple- 
ment? Give examples of each. 26. Give two sentences each 
containing a verb having two or more object complements ; of two 
or more verbs with the same object ; of two or more verbs with more 
than one object complement. 27. What is the subject of a declara- 
tive sentence? of an imperative sentence? of an interrogative sen- 
tence? (Notice that the interrogative sentence may have for its 
subject the person or thing of whom or about whom the question is 
asked.) 

28. What is the predicate of a declarative sentence? Of an im- 
perative sentence? Of an interrogative sentence? 29. In the sen- 
tence, The boy is happy, what word completes the verb is? What 
word does happy described 30. What are such complements called? 
31. Do these complements ever do any thing but describe the sub- 
ject? What else do they do? Illustrate. 32. Take the following 
words and put into the brace as many different kinds of comple- 
ments as you can think of, and, as far as you can, tell what each 
one does. (Those that you can not fully understand, you will 
hereafter study further.) 

Horses are 

33. What is the attribute in a sentence? 34. Do all attributes 
describe the subject? 35. If not, what else do they do? 36. Give 
an example of a clause attribute ; of a phrase attribute ; of a pronoun 
used as an attribute. 37. Give an example of an attribute used be- 
fore the subject. 38. What words qualify or limit nouns ? 39. What 
words modify verbs ? 40. What words besides verbs do adverbs mod- 
ify ? 41. What are the principal parts of a sentence ? 42. What are 
words called that qualify or limit the subject, the object, or the noun 
attribute? 43. What do adverbial modifiers generally show? 44. 
Name some adverbial modifiers that show /ioi(;; ivhen; where; why. 
45. When adverbial clauses are set before the clauses that they mod- 
ify, how are they separated from them? 46. What are adjective 
adjuncts? 47. Give examples of word adjuncts, phrase adjuncts, 
and clause adjuncts, used adjectively. 48. Notice how a phrase 
maybe expanded into a clause. Expand the italicized phrases into 
clauses: I saw a stone rolling down hill. A bird in the hand, is 
worth two in the bush. The work to be accomplished is difficult. 49. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. 57 

Of what is a prepositional phrase composed ? Of what is a verbal 
phrase composed? 50. How many kinds of verbal phrases are there ? 
Give an example of a verbal phrase having an infinitive as its 
leader ; one having a participle as its leader. 

51. (a) Give an example of an infinitive having an object. 

(b) Give an example of a participle having an object. 

(c) Give an example of an infinitive having an attribute. 

(d) Give an example of a participle having an attribute. 

(e) Give an example of an infinitive having an adverbial modifier. 

(f) Give an example of a participle having an adverbial modifier. 

(g) Give an example of an infinitive with the to understood. 
(li) Use an infinitive phrase as the subject of a sentence. 

(i) Use an infinitive phrase as an attribute. 

(j) Use an infinitive phrase as an object. 

(k) Give an example of an infinitive phrase used as an adverbial 
modifier. 

(1) Give an example of a participial phrase used as an adjective 
adjunct. 

(m) Give an example of a prepositional phrase used as an attri- 
bute of the subject. 

52. How many and what different kinds of connectives may con- 
nect subordinate clauses to the rest of the sentence? Give examples 
of each. 53. What is the difi'erence between a connective pronoun 
and a connective adverb? 54. What is the difi'erence between a 
connective pronoun and a conjunction? 

55. (a) Give an example of a conjunction connecting words. 

(b) Give an example of a conjunction connecting phrases. 

(c) Give an example of a conjunction connecting independent 
clauses. 

56. When words are connected by conjunctions, what can you 
say of the office of the words? 57. What is a word or a phrase hav- 
ing no grammatical connection with the rest of the sentence called? 
58. Give examples of an exclamatory word; of an absolute phrase. 
Of the name of the person addressed. 59. How should they be 
punctuated? 60. Expand each italicized word or phrase into a 
clause,- and tell what kind of clause it is: 

(a) The boy yonder is industrious. 

(b) Th'e man sitting by the roadside is a cripple. 

(c) Seeing the difficulty, we abandoned the undertaking. 

(d) Having finished his task, the prisoner was given a frugal 
repast. 



58 



FORMS OF ANALYSIS. 



Additional Work in Analysis. 

Form for Analysis of a Simple Sentence. 



I. Classify the Sentence: 

II. Point out the Asserting 
Words. 

Modified or completed by : 



{1. According to form. 
]2. According to meaning. 



Adverbial adjunct. 

Attribute or Object Complement. 



Which mav be 



a. Word. 

b. Phrase=Prin. 

part. 

I Adjunct. 

c. Clause. 
Show ing 



III. Principal Part of Subject. 

Qualified by ^^^ j^ ^^^ g^^.^^^_ 

•2. In the Predicate (Attribute). 



Adjective Adjunct: 



Which maybe 



a. Word. 
to. Phrase= 

c. Clause. 
Showing — 



=Prin. part. 

I Adjunct. 



Form for Complex and Compound Sentences. 

1. Analyze the principal clause or clauses first. 

2. Classify the subordinate clauses as adjuncts, and then analyze 
as above. (See form for simple sentence.) 

3. Point out the connectives. 

Model : 

Tlie chair of solid oak in which Van T wilier sat was very heavy. 

A complex declarative sentence. 

Principal clause : The chair of solid oak was very heavy, of which 
was is the asserting word, completed by heavy, an attribute word 
showing weight. Heavy is modified by very, an adverbial word- 
adjunct showing degree. The principal part of the subject is chair, 
limited by the, an adjective word-adjunct pointing out, and by of 
solid oak, an adjective prepositional phrase showing material. Of 
oak is the principal part, and oak is limited by solid, an adjective 
word-adjunct showing kind. Chair is also limited by in which Van 
Twiller sat, an adjective clause showing which chair. Of this 
subordinate clause, sat is the asserting word, modified by in which, 



DIAGRAMS. 59 

an adverbial prepositional phrase of place. Van Twiller is the 
subject. The subordinate clause is connected to chair by which. 

Diagram. 
chair , was \ heavy 




To the Teacher. — The diagram is much shorter than the analysis, 
but diagraming does not train the pupil in the ready use of oral lan- 
guage. 

Phrases and Clauses. 
Analyze, and notice the diagrams : 
1. Subject phrase, prepositional. 
For every one to succeed is impossible. 
one 



A 

\1i 



\ succeed 



A 



is \ impossible 



2. Attribute j^hrase, prepositional 
Bertha is in trouble. (Condition.) 



Bertha . is x A 



\ trouble 



3. Subject and attribute phrases, verbal : 
To analyze a sentence is to separate it into its parts. 



60 



\^ 




VIAL 


rUAI\ 
























analyze 


1 sentence 

V 






separate , 


it 

parts 




L- 




is 




A- 


..\*,. , 



4. Object phrase, verbal 
I mean to be punctual. 



\ be \ punctual 
I , mean ; }\ 



5. Independent phrase, prepositional 
In fact, she has no money. 

\ fact 



she , has , money 



6. Independent phrase, verbal 
To tell the truth, she has no money. 






V tell r truth 



she , has , money 



7. Object phrase, verbal: 

I can not prevent his making trouble. 
(Making, part verb and part noun.) 



DIAGRAMS. 
mak 



^pns. 



can prevent 



A 



trouble 



61 



8. Independent phrase, verbal: 
Putting it plainly, he is a villain. 



.r6 



yting I i t 



he , is \ villain 
1 ^ \ 



Complex Sentences. 
Substantive Clauses and Introductory Conjunction. 

1. Subject clause and attribute clause: 

That she drowned herself cannot be proved. 

The belief is that she drowned herself. (Identity.) 



That 
she I drowned [ herself 



1 



can be proved 



that V^ 



she 1 drowne d | herself 



belief | is \ 



i 



62 DIAGRAMS. 

2. Object clause: 
People think that she drowned herself. 

that 

she , drowned ; herself 
People , think , A 

He cried, " Who is it ?" (No conjunction needed.) 

it f is \ Who 



He , cried 



1 



1. T do not fear to meet him on the open field. 2. Why stand 
we here idle? 3. Already the bold riflemen are on the rock. 4. 
How magnificent was the sight that now burst upon me ! 5. What 
she did there I can not tell. 6. What she did there has never been 
told. 7. The best place for the flag is on that high hill. 8. Father, 
Thy hand hath reared these venerable columns. 9. To do good for- 
get not. 10. To load his gun was the work of an instant. 
11. Then the master, 

With a gesture of command. 
Waved his hand. 
12. Pruning the trees kept us busy for a month. 13. Can time, 
or winds, or floods, or fire destroy Luther's pyramid? 14. Never 
boast of catching a fish until he is on dry land. 15. To gain an 
undying name, Alexander drew the sword of conquest. 16. In the 
second day of the voyage, they came to the Highlands. 17. " Well, 
my boys," said the old gentleman, '' I will be the judge." 18. How 
far that little candle throws its beams ! 

19. On right, on left, above, below, 
Sprang up at once the lurking foe. 
20. How often since, I have been reminded of the fish that I did 
not catch. 21. Pleased with this praise, Polly sang away in a fresh 
little voice that went straight to the listener's heart. 22. Never 
take a mean advantage of any one in any transaction, and never be 
unkind to people who are in your power. 



DIAGRAMS. 63 

23. "Why woulds't thou leave me, gentle child? 
Thy home on the mountain is bleak and wild. 
24. The nightingale shyly took 

Her head from under her wing, 
And, giving the dove a look, 
Straightway began to sing. 
25. Now, here you see young David Copperfield, and the ques- 
tion is, What shall I do with him? 26. The chapel bell began to 
ring at a quarter to eleven, and Tom got in early and took his place 
in the lowest row. 

27. Flag of the seas ! on ocean wave 

Thy stars shall glitter o'er the brave. 
28. Born upon the verge of ci^^lization, Webster retained to the 
last his love for that pure, fresh nature in which he was cradled. 

29. And Maud forgot her brier-torn gown, 
And her graceful ankles bare and brown, 
And listened, while a glad surprise 
Looked from her long-lashed hazel eyes. 

30. A form more fair, a face more sweet, 
Ne 'er hath it been my lot to meet. 

31. Wlien Mackenzie had finished speaking, the chief rose, began 
to address him in a low voice, but soon became loud and \T:olent, 
and ended by working himself into a furious passion. 
32. He who ascends to mountain tops shall find 

The loftiest peaks most wrapt in clouds and snow ; 
He who surpasses or subdues mankind 
Must look down on the hate of those below. 



PART II-INTRODUCTION, 



To the Teacher.— In Part I. you have led the pupil to see by the 
actual investigation of the English sentence its signification as a 
whole, its division into elements, and their meaning and bearing 
upon, or relation to each other. You have also shown him that tlie 
separate words, as signs of certain ideas or relations, are the Parts 
of Speech, and you have given him the names which, for purposes 
of convenience, are commonly applied to these. It now remains to 
show him that a word is not necessarily always the same part of 
speech, though retaining exactly the same form; and, on the other 
hand, that some words may undergo certain changes of form, called 
modifications, and yet remain the same part of speech. He should 
also now discern the changes of relations that give rise to these 
modifications, and the law^s controlling them. 

Wherever it is practicable, the pupil should be led to see these 
things for himself. The plan of Part I. is, therefore, continued — ex- 
ercises on all important points being presented for examination, 
from which the pupil should be taught to deduce general principles 
and rules. The amount of space required, however, makes it im- 
possible to carry out this plan in every detail. It is left for the 
teacher to present additional exercises for development and illus- 
tration, according to the ability and advancement of the pupils. 

In this work no attempt is made to give formal definitions to be 
memorized. There is usually too much parrot-like recitation in 
grammar classes, and definitions, forms for parsing, etc., contribute 
,to foster this kind of work. The design here is to lead the child 
himself to recognize facts, relations, and laws. This is done by 
means of questions upon sentences presented for his careful exam- 
ination. 



66 INTR OD UCTION. 

As far as possible he should be requhed to make his own defini- 
tions, thus cultivating a clear conception and understanding of the 
subject, as well as a habit of expressing his thoughts clearly and 
accurately. It may often be found profitable to require more than 
one definition for the same thing, wath illustrations, original or 
selected, to make sure that the point is well understood. This 
becomes, under the guidance of the teacher, oral composition. 

If in parsing or construction, the pupil is required to give, before 
stating his conclusions, the facts derived from his observation, his 
power of discrimination and judgment will be trained as well as his 
power of discernment and memory. Thus, instead of ''This is a 
noun because it is a name ; masculine gender because it denotes the 
male sex; second person because spoken of," etc., let the order be 
reversed, as follows : "This is a name, therefore a noun ; denotes a 
male, therefore masculine gender; denotes the person spoken to, 
therefore second person," etc. 

Of course, neither plan should be follow^ed exclusively, but great 
care should be taken that the pupil do not fall into the habit of 
almost thoughtless recitation. 

The composition exercises should be carefully prepared, and may 
be much extended, those given here being mainly suggestive. 



CHAPTER I. 
REVIEW OF PARTS OF SPEECH. 

Jjesso?i J^9. 

In Part First, you have learned to classify words as nouns, pro- 
nouns, verbs, etc., according to their use in sentences. 

There are nine of these classes, called Parts of Speech, 
viz.: Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, Verbs, Verbals, Adverbs, 
Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections. 

Besides these there are a few words used merely for 
euphony (that is, for the sake of sound) which do not 
belong properly to any one of the above classes. 

Such words are generally called expletives. 

Exercise : 

Analyze the following sentences according to models 
given in Part First. 

Give the use of each word in the sentence, and tell what 
part of speech it is. 

Model : 

The school that I visited in San Francisco is large. 

The limits the noun school, and is therefore an adjective. School is a 
name, and is therefore a noun. That stands for the noun school, and is 
therefore a pronoun. I stands for a name, and is tlierefore a pronoun. 
Visited asserts something of /, and is therefore a verb. In connects its 
object San Francisco to the verb visited, and is therefore a preposition. 
San Francisco is a name, and is therefore a noun. Is asserts something 
of school, and is therefore a verb. Large describes school, and is therefore 
an adjective. 

1. Breakfast was ready and they sat down at the table. 2. I shall 
fish where the water is deep. 3. Halloo! come and help us. 4. The 
next morning proved fine and sunny, and great numbers of people 
came to the auction. 5. How did you know I was coming? 6. Annie's 
papa was sitting in the rocking-chair by the stove, when she went back. 
7. In the corner of the j)ark is the hunter's lodge built of stone. 8. The 



68 PARTS OF SPEECH. 

poor woman works very hard to support her family. 9, There is no 
hope of catching the train. 10. " Oh !" cried the girl, "look at that fish !" 
11. In the afternoon they played all sorts of games. 12. Through the 
opening, Becky could see her grandfather bending over the big brick 
oven. 13. Goldsmith would give away his money, his dinner, or his 
clothes, whenever he saw anybody in distress. 14. Where are you 
going, my pretty maid? 

15. The sudden sun shone through the pane, 
And lighted both their faces. 



Zesso7i 50, 

Definitions. 
From the foregoing exercises you have learned that: 
A iVoiMi is a name. 

A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. 
An Adjective is a word limiting or describing a noun or a 
pronoun. 

[Note to tlie Teacher.— The pupil should be led to see that a qualify- 
ing adjective really describes the thing named rather than the noun 
which iiames the thing, but as the above definition is brief, and the one 
in general use, it is thought best to retain it here.] 

A Verb is a word that asserts (tells, asks, or commands). 

A Verbal is a word derived from a verb, and is generally 
used to assume something instead of to assert. 

An Adverb is a word added to a verb, a verbal, an ad- 
jective, or an adverb, to modify its meaning. 

A Preposition is a word connecting its object to the word 
that the prepositional phrase limits or modifies. 

A Conjunction is a word connecting words, phrases, or 
clauses, and having no other office. 

An Interjection is a word expressing strong or sudden feel- 
ing, and having no grammatical connection with the rest 
of the sentence. 

[Note to the Teacher.— Additional exercises in telling parts of speech 
should be given from lessons in the First and Second Readers. Let 
children bring in original sentences, in which the class name the parts 

of speech.] 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 69 

Ijesso?i 6/. 

How TO TELL THE PaRTS OF SPEECTT. 



Exercise : 



Give the part of speech of each italicized word in the 
following : 

1. I saw a black swallow fly fast. 2. Did the little boy swallow a fly? 
3. The boys black their boots. 4. That light went out. 5. The light that 
you put in the window went out. 6. Write the word that on the board. 
7. Light the lamp so that the room may be light. 8. Little Harry is 
afraid of the dark, but his sister cares little if the room is dark. 9. I 
forgot to dot the i in the word in. 10. Yoiir book is «i the house. 

From the sentences already studied, it will be seen that there 
are three methods of classification by which we ma}' determine 
wliat part of speech any given word is: 

First, and least important, every word, spoken of merely 
as a word, is a name, or noun; thus, 

Writ€ go on your slate. Last is often mispronounced. You have 
not spelled great correctly. He could not say no. Cross the t in then. 
Look for whom in the dictionary. 

Second, most words are, in their derivation and general 
use, some particular part of speech; thus, 

Good is usually an adjective : This is a good oj:>/;Ze. 

Ho.ne is usually a noun : He lives at home. 

Above is usualh" a preposition : The clouds are above onr heads. 

Bxit is usually a conjunction : The day is cloudy but warm. 

This is called the etymology^ or etymological classification 
of words. 

Third, and most important, the vi^e of a word in any 
given sentence determines its part of speech in that sen- 
tence; thus, 

Good may be used as a noun : lie tried to do good. 

Home may be used as an adverb : Let us go home. 

Above may be used as an adjective ; / refer to the above statement. 

But may be used as a preposition : All are gone but me. 



70 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 



This is called the grammatical classification, or the syn- 
tax of %ords, and it is the classification with which, in the 
study of grammar, we are especially concerned. 



J^esson 52. 



Exercises: 



a. Write sentences containing the following words used 
as directed: 



Vie as a verb, 
lie as a noun, 
dry as a verb, 
dry as an adjective, 
clean as a verb, 
clean as an adjective, 
striking as a verb, 
striking as an adjective, 
striking as a noun, 
well as a noun, 
well as an adjective, 
well as an adverb, 
well as an interjection, 
enough as an adverb, 
enough as an adjective, 
right as a nonv. 
right as an adjective, 
fire as a ver&. 



6ncA; as a wown. 
6ricA; as an adjective, 
pick as a noun, 
pick as a ?;er6. 
outside as a noun, 
outside as an adjective, 
sound as a noun, 
sound as an adjective, 
sound as a '?;(Sr6. 
??ia(ie as a i;ej-&. 
??iade as a verbal, 
reading as a norm. 
reading as a verbal, 
safe as an adjective, 
safe as a viown. 
stranger as a noun, 
stranger as an adjective, 
fire as a noun. 



b. Select five words for yourself, each of which may be 
used as two or more different parts of speech, and use them 
as such in sentences. 



NOU^^S AND PRONG UXS. 71 

CHAPTER II. 
NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

Jjessoji 5^-L 

Kinds of Nouns. 

"We have seen from the foregoing that words are classified in syn- 
tax as different parts of speech, not from their etymology, but from 
their meaning and use in the sentence. 

But some of these classes have sulxli visions, and changes of form, 
which we study in order to understand language clearly and to use 
it correctly. 

Let us fir8t examine the nouns in the following: 

I met a c/u7d. Which child? Harry. 

He was from the citxj. What city? Los Angeles. 

The hoys are happy. What boys ? Ned and Tom. 

We will go some day. What day ? Tuesday. 

Saddle the /jorse. Which horse? Fleetfoot. 

We climbed a mountain. What mountain? Mt. Shasta. 

In the first column, each italicized noun may be applied to any 
one or to all of that class of objects. Hence 

Such nouns are called common nouns. 

Most things belong to some class, and can have a general or 
class name. But we sometimes wish to show more clearly which 
one of a class is meant, and therefore we must use a particular or 
special name, such as those in the third column. 

Such names are called proper nouns. 

People, countries, cities, rivers, and sometimes horses, dogs, etc., 
have both kinds of names. 

Exercises : 

a. Give a suitable proper noun instead of each of the fol- 
lowing common nouns: 

Brother, sister, mountain, cousin, dog, city, lake, mother, book, 
president, ocean, doctor. 



il KINDS OF NOUNS. 

b. Give the common or class name for each of the fol- 
lowing proper nouns: 

British America, Susie, Cape Horn, Mr. Black, Dash, Tecumseh, 
Fourth of July, Stockton, General Grant, Robinson Crusoe. 

Notice (1) That some proper nouns are single words; as, Susie, 
Dash, Stockton; and that some are made up of two or more words ; 
as, British America, Cape Horn, Fourth of July. In the latter case 
all the words together make the noun, because all are required to 
name the thing clearly. 

Notice (2) That every proper noun and, usually, every word of a 
proper noun, begins with a capital letter. 

c. Write a list of six common nouns, using three of them 
in sentences. 

d. Write a list of six proper nouns composed of one word 
each, using three of them in sentences. 

e. Write six proper nouns, of two or more words each, 
using capitals properly. 

Remark. — When a proper name, as Clark, Milton, becomes partly com- 
mon by applying it to more than one individual, it still retains its capital; 
as, The three Miss Clarks. There are not many Miltons. He was a new 
Milton {meaning such a poet as Milton). When an object is personified, 
that is, spoken of or spoken to as an individual, the noii,n becomes proper, 
and is written with a capital, as, '^Thou hast all seasons for thine own, 
Death." 



Ij€SS071 5^, 

Kinds of Nouns. 



Exercise 



In the following sentences, select the common nouns and 
the proper nouns, and show why they are thus classified: 

1. We quote from Professor Swett's " School Elocution." 
2. There are maidens in Scotland, more lovely by far. 
That would gladly be bride to the young Lochinvar. 
3. Then hail the banner of the free 
The starry Flower of Liberty ! 
4. Here, Tim, tell Ned Saunders he can 't have the mare. Neighbor 
Derby wants her. 5. Backward, turn backward, O Time, in your flight. 



NFMBEn. 73 

6. "I came from "Westminster Hall," replied the miller; "my name is 
Matthew Hale; I am Lord Chief Justice of the King's Bench." 7. 
Whence are thy beams, O Sun ! thy everlasting light? 
8. Love and tears for the Blue ; 
Tears and love for the Gray. 
9. Judge not the Lord by feeble sense, 
But trust him for his grace ; 
Behind a frowning Providence, 
He hides a smiling face. 
10. In one of Hans Christian Andersen's " Wonder Stories," entitled 
" The Ugly Duckling," he has written, in allegory, his own history. 



Jjesso7i 55. 

^lODTFTCATIONS OF NoUNS AND PrONOUNS. 

Some parts of speech change their relations and their form much 
more than other parts of speech, and sometimes a change in the 
office or form of one word requires a change in the form of one or 
more other words in the sentence. It is necessary to understand 
tliese modifications, in order to use the correct form, and to make 
the difierent parts of speech agree with one another. 

[Note to the Teacher.— It is thought best, for purposes of brevity and 
for greater clearness, to teach the modifications of nouns and pronouns 
at the same time.] 

Modification by Number. 

1. This nut is good. 3. That boy hopped and / saw him. 

2. These nuts are good. 4. Those boys hopped and we saw them. 

Select the nouns and the pronouufi in the above sentences, and 
tell whether each of them means one or more than one. 

Compare number 2 with number 1, and number 4 with number 
3, and notice that other words besides the nouns and pronouns are 
changed. 

This modification of the noun or pronoun by which it 
changes its form to denote more than one, is called Num- 
ber. As there are two forms, there are tivo numbers. 

The Singular Numher denotes one; as, man, tree, she, it. 

The Plural Number denotes more than one; as, men, trees, 
they. 



74 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

J^esson 56, 

Formation of Plurals. 

I3 the noun pen singular or plural? Pronounce the last sound in 
the word pen. The last in pens. Join the two sounds. Now pro- 
nounce pens. 

Do the same with ^ree, de%k, boot, table. 

Pronounce box. See if you can add the sound of s easily. What 
would be easier to pronounce? Why? 

In the same way try bush, fence (silent e), church. 

Rule I. — Noims ending in a sound that will easily unite 
with the sound of s, form their plurals by adding s only; 
but if the last sound of the singular will not easily unite 
with that of s, then es is added. 

Exercises: 

a. Spell the plurals of the following and give the part of 
the rule that applies to each: 

Sea, path, gas, lace (drop silent e and add es), chief, loss, fox, barge, 
ear, perch. 

b. Write twelve nouns under each part of the rule. 

c. Reconstruct the following sentences, changing the itali- 
cized words to the opposite number, and change any other 
words necessary to make the sentences sound well: 

1. The dog is barking. 

2. This horse is a noble animal.. 

3. That hush has grown rapidly. 

4. Where were the children? 

5. I want a yard of cloth. 

6. The boys have lost their hats. 

[Note to the Teacher.— The first rule is developed in full as a guide. 
Each succeeding rule should be developed by exercises of the same 
character. Drill exercises similar to those under Rules I. and II. should 
be given after each rule is developed.] 

Eule II. — Common nouns ending in y preceded by a con- 
sonant change y to i and add es; but when the y is pre- 
ceded by a vowel, s only is added; as, 





NUMBER. 






Plu. 

flies 
ponies 
mercies 




Sing. 

key 

valley 

boy 


Plu. 

keys 

valleys 

boys 



Sing. 

fly 
pony 
merc}^ 

Exercises: 

a. Pluralize the following, giving the rule for each: 
Story, sky, turkey, spy, toy, donkey, colloquy, lady, tray. 
Remark. — The letter u following q is always a co7isonant, having the 

sound of w. 

b. Write six examples of your own under each part of 
the rule. Select three from each list, and use them in sen- 
tences; then change the words used to the plural form, and 
rewrite the sentences. 



Jj,esso7i 57* 

Formation of Plurals. 

Rvle III. — (a) Nouns ending in o preceded by a vowel 
form their plurals regularly by adding s; as, 
folio folios ratio ratios trio trios 

cameo cameos cuckoo cuckoos embryo embryos 

(b) Common English nouns ending in o preceded by a 
consonant^ add es; as, 

cargo cargoes motto mottoes hero heroes 

echo echoes potato potatoes buffalo buffaloes 

(c) Foreign nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant, 
add s only; as, 

halo hales piano pianos octavo octavos 

lasso lassos solo solos memento mementos 

Some of this last class are spelled differently by different 
authorities; as, 

Wdj^ter. ■ Worcester. 

grottoes grottos 

porticoes porticos 

dominoes or dominos dominos 

quartos quartos or quartoes 



7B NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

Rule IV. — (a) Compound nouns generally pluralize the 
most important part; as, 



mouse-trap 


mouse-traps 


court-martial 


courts-martial 


wagon-load 


wagon-loads 


spoonful 


spoonfuls 


sister-in-law 


sisters-in-law 


cupful 


cupfuls 



Remark— She drank two cupfuls, means one cup filled twice, or an 
amount equal to that. She has two cups full means two cups, each filled. 
In cupfuls the chief idea is the filling. 

(b) Some compounds pluralize both parts; as, 

man-singer men-singers Knight-Templar Knights-Templars 

woman-servant women-servants man-child men-children 

(c) Some pluralize the last word without regard to the 
most important part; as, 

forget-me-not forget-me-nots jack-a-lantern jack-a-lan terns 

piano-forte piano-fortes tete-a-tete tete-a-tetes 



Ijesson 58, 

Formation of Plurals. 

Uide V. — (a) Proper nouns, when pluralized, add s or es 
and are generally preceded by the definite article; as, 

The Crawf ords ; the Bushes. 

Remark. — Proper nouns thus pluralized, as they apply to classes, are 
generally classified as common nouns. 

(b) When two or more persons of the same name and the 
same title are mentioned together, the best usage pluralizes 
the name and not the title, particularly if it is accompanied 
by an adjective of number; as. 

The Miss Clarks ; the three Mr. Hales. 

(c) But when the names are different and the title the 
same, or when diflFerent Christian names are expressed, the 
title is pluralized and not the name; as. 



NUMBER. 



11 



Generals; Howard and Sheridan; Messrs. Wells and Hatch; the 
Misses Eva and Frances Moody 

Rule VI. — The plurals of names of nations and societies 
should have the article prefixed; as, 

The Germans; the Odd Fellows ; the Masons. 



Z^essou 59, 

Formation of Plurals. 

Rxde VII. — Foreign nouns, when anglicized, or made 
P^nglish, take plurals according to the English rules ; 
other foreign nouns retain the plurals which they have in 
the original language; some, however, have both plural 
forms. 

A few examples of foreign nouns in common use are 
given. The plurals of others may be found by referring to 
the dictionary: 



Sitifjiilar. 
Alumnus 
Amanuensis 
Analysis 
Apex 
Axis 
Appendix 

Beau 

Basis 

Bandit 

Cherub 

Chrysalis 

Crisis 

Datum 

Ellipsis 

Emphasis 

Erratum 

Formula 

Focus 

Fungus 



Plural. 
alumni 
amanuenses 
analyses 
apexes or ap^ices 
axes 
appendixes or ap- 

pen'dices 
beaus or beaux 
bases 

bandits or banditti 
cherubs or cherubim 
chrysalides 
crises 
data 
ellipses 
emphases 
errata 

formulas or formulse 
focuses or foci 
funguses or fungi 



Singular, 
Genus 
Gymnasium 

Hypothesis 

Ignis-fatuus 

Larva 

Monsieur 

Memorandum 

Nebula 

Nucleus 

Oasis 

Parenthesis 

Phenomenon 

Radius 

Stamen 

Stratum 

Thesis 

Vertebra 

Vortex 



Plural. 

genera 

gymnasiums or gym- 
nasia 

hypotheses 

ignes-fatui 

larvae 

messieurs 

memorandums or 
memoranda 

nebulae 

nuclei 

oases 

parentheses 

phenomena 

radii 

stamens or stamina 

stra turns or strata 

theses 

vertebrae 

vortexes or vortices 



78 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

Jjesson 60, 

Formation of Plurals. 

Rule VIII. — Letters, marks, figures, etc., form their plurals 
by adding the apostrophe and s ; as, 

Dot your i's and cross j^our f s. The 4's and the I's are not made 
carefully. 

Irregular Plurals. 

(a) Some nouns and pronouns change the word to form 
the plural. 



NOUNS. 




Sing. 


Plu. 


man 


men 


woman 


women 


foot 


feet 


goose 


geese 


tooth 


teeth 


louse 


lice 


mouse 


mice 


ox 


oxen 


chHd 


children 





PRONOUNS. 


Sing. 


Plu. 


I 


we 


mine 


ours 


me 


us 


thou 


you 


thee 


you 


it 


they 


he 


they 


she 


they 



(b) Some are alike in both numbers; as, 

Sheep, deer, swine, vermin, grouse, salmon, trout, apparatus, series, 
alms (generally plural), bellows, cannon, means, odds, species, amends, 
pains (care). 

Apparatus and cannon have also a regular plural. 

(c) Some are always plural; as. 

Annals, ashes, assets, billiards, bitters, cattle, clothes, eaves, hose, 
hysterics, nuptials, pinchers, riches, remains, scissors, shears, snuffers, 
statistics, thanks, tongs, tidings, trousers, tweezers, victuals, vitals. 

Dregs, embers, lungs, oats, stairs, though used chiefly in the plural 
have also a singular form. 

(d) Some are always singular; such as the names of 
Metals ; as, gold, copper: Virtues ; as, kindness, honesty: 
Vices; as, intemperance, dishonesty: Arts; as, painting, 
sculpture: Sciences; as, chemistry, physics: Abstract quali- 
ties; as, hardness, elasticity: Names of substances; as, 
sugar, oil, etc. 



NUMBER. 



But nouns denoting different kinds of substances may 
be pluralized; as, 

The wines, grapes, and fruits of the New "World. 



IjCSSou 6*/. 

Formation of Plurals. 

(e) Some nouns ending in/or/e change /to v and add 
s or es; as, 



calf calves 


wife 


wives 




beef 




beeves 


knife knives 


1 elf 


elves 




half 




halves 


loaf loaves 


leaf 


leaves 




life 




lives 


shelf shelves self 


selves 




shea 


if 


sheaves 


wharf wharfs 


or wharves wolf 


wolves 




thief 


thieves 


Others ending in/ add s only; as. 


) 








dwarf 


dwarfs 


scarf 


scarfs 




reef 


reefs 


brief 


briefs 


chief 


chiefs 




grief 


griefs 


handkerchief 


handkerchiefs 


gulf 


gulfs 




safe 


safes 


fife 


fifes 


strife 


strifes 




proof proofs 


hoof 


hoofs 


reproof 


reproofs 


niufi 


muffs 


flagstaff 


flagstaffs 













(f) When other parts of speech become nouns, if they 
take a plural, it is formed regularly; as, 

At sixes and sevens. The ifs and the buts. 

(g) Some nouns have two plurals of different meanings; 
as, 



Singular. Regular Plural. 

brother brothers (of a family) 

die dies (stamps for coining) 

genius geniuses (men of genius) 

head heads (parts of the body) 

index indexes (tables of contents) 

pea peas (distinct grains) 

penny pennies (distinct coins) 

sail sails (pieces of canvas) 



Irregular Plural. 
brethren (of a society) 
dice (cubes for gaming) 
genii (spirits) 
head (of cattle) 
indices (algebraic exponents) 
pease (taken in bulk) 
pence (an amount of money) 
sail (vessels) 



Caution. — Nouns ending in man, when not componnds, should be plu- 
ralized regularly; as, Germans, Mussulmans, talismans. 



80 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

Ijesso?i 62, 

Collectivp:: Nouns. 

I saw a flock of birds, a band of sheep, a drove of horses. 

The words Jlock, band, and drove are singular, for there may be 
two or more Jiocks, bands, or droves; yet each of these words, in its 
singular form, expresses the idea of a number of individuals. So, 
such words as 

audience, assembly, committee, 
express an idea of many, though singular in form. Such nouns are 
called collective nouns. Therefore: 

A Collective Noun is a noun that, in its singular form, 
names a collection of persons or things. 

(h) When the individuals are spoken of together, as a 
whole, the collective noun is singular, but it may also take 
a regular plural; as, 

The audience is large. The lecturer drew large audiences. 

(i) When a collective noun of the singular form is taken 
in a distributive sense, that is, when the individuals are 
thought of separately, it is plural in meaning, and its verb 
or pronoun must also have the plural form ; as. 

The audience were not able to agree upon a committee, so the chair- 
man appointed one that suited them all. 

The committee ivere divided in their opinions. 

Ijesso7i 63, 

Exercises : 

a. Tell whether each of the following is singular or plu- 
ral, give the opposite number, when there is one, and state 
the rule for forming each: 

Path, sugar, geniuses, valley, 9, mice, box, potato, sisters-in-law, 
policies, apparatus, spoonful, Messrs., measles, idleness, milk, engrav- 
ing, beau, brother, gooseberry, solo, way, oases, genus, postofiices, Mr. 
Cook, men-servants, chief, angels, mother-in-law, Frances Hart and 
Nellie Hart (different form), Miss Hart and her sister (different form), 
tea, proof, kingdom, matbematics, tomato, morning, they, gentlemen, 
leaves, pianos, bridge, genii, chimneys, wives, axes, money, and, clothes. 



PERSON. 81 

b. Use the words ^ocA-, band, drove, correctly, with a sin- 
guhir verb or pronoun. Also with a plural verb or pronoun. 



J^esso?i 6^. 

Modification by Person. 

In the sentence, 

/ ^iiidij my lesson, 
I and vty represent the speaker of the sentence. 
In the sentence, 

James, study your lesson, 
James and your represent the person spoken to. 
In the sentence, 

JTe studies Ms lesson, 
he and his represent the person spoken of. 

Exercises : 

a. Take the sentences in Lesson 54, and tell the person 
of each noun and pronoun used, calling of the first person, 
all that represent the speaker, of the second person, all that 
represent the person or thing spoken to, and of the third 
person, all that represent the person or thing spoken of. 

Notice (!) that nearly all nouns are in the third person. When 
a noun does occur in the second person ; as, 
George, come here, 
it is set off from the rest of the sentence by a comma, and is an 
independent word. 

Nouns are sometimes used in the first person, in legal forms ; as, 
"/, James Smith, being of sound mind," 
and inihe Bible; as, 

"I, Paul, beseech you." 

Notice (2) that most pronouns use different words to show the 
different persons; as, we, you, they, while nouns remain the same 
in all persons. 

Were it not that the person of the noun sometimes affects the 
pronoun and the verb: as, 

Henry do your work, Henry does his work, 

it would be unnecessary to say anything about the person of nouns. 

6-G 



82 KOUNS ANP PBONOUm. 

b. Give the person of the nouns and of the pronouns in 
the following: 

1. My teacher asked me to hand this book to you. 2. Now, Preston, 
show your father the letter you have written. 3. I am but a servant; 
you are the master. 4. We pupils have little hope of understanding 
that which puzzles our teacher. 5. I, John, saw these things. 



Ijessofi 65, 

Modification by Gender. 

The husband, instead of the wife, should do the heavy work, for 
lie is stronger than she. 

I saw a. lion and a lioness; he was looking at his mate, and. she 
was fondling her cubs. 

Examine the words liushand and ^v'ife; lion and lioness; also the 
pronouns representing these nouns. 

The distinction you observe here, is called gender. 

Gender, then, is that modification of nouns and pronouns 
which shows the sex of the animate object named. 

As there are two sexes, male and female, there are two 
corresponding genders, masculine a,nd feminine. 

Most nouns and some pronouns; as, tree, hook, fence, it, 
etc., show that the object represented has no sex. These 
words, for convenience, are commonly said to be of the 
neuter gender, because they have neither gender. This, 
however, except in the case of the pronoun it, is not a mod- 
ification, but rather the absence of a change of form. 

To these three genders there are three corresponding pro- 
nouns, — masculine he, feminine she, neuter it. 

In the study of language, the only purpose in determin- 
ing the gender of a noun is to decide what pronoun to use 
to represent the noun. 

Remark. — 1. The singular prono^ins of the first and of the second person, 
as they represent, respect ivel>j, the speaker and the person spoken to {both 
supposed to be present), have no modification of gender. 

2. The plnral pronouns, as they may represent persons of either gender, 
have no gender form. With these are classed such nouns as parent, chil- 



GENDER. S3 

dren, cattle, birds, etc., for these ivords, although they represent animate 
objects, having sex, have in themselves nothing to determine their gender. 
They have sometimes been called of the common gender, but there being no 
corresponding pronoun the distinction seems unnecessary. Either say noth- 
ing about the gender, or say that it can not be determined. 

There are three chief ways of distinguishing the mascu- 
Une gender from the feminine gender: 



(1) 

B>/ different tcorrla. 
man woman 

nephew niece 
earl countess 



(2) 

By different 

terminations. 

tiger tigress 

prince princess 

hero heroine 



(3) 
By prefixing or affixing ivords 

to distinguish the sex. 
landlord landlady 

man-servant maid-servant 
gentleman gentlewoman 



Remark. — Many of the feminine forms ending in ess are becoming obsolete. 

He is the mascuHne pronoun, and i^he the feminine. 

When a noun is applicable to either sex, the masculine 
pronoun is employed, unless there is something else to indi- 
cate that the female sex is meant; as, 

Every passenger must now pay his fare. 
In a nunnery every one must do her <luty. 

When objects possessing no sex are personified or given 
the characteristics of either sex, they take the correspond- 
ing pronoun: things noted for power, strength, etc., the 
masculine; those noted for grace, beauty, productiveness, etc., 
the feminine; as, 

The sun sheds his beams upon all. (power) 
The moon sheds her silver light, (beauty) 

Small animals and young children are generally repre- 
sented by the pronoun it. 



Lesso?i 66, 

Modification by Gender. 



Exercises : 



a. Give the gender of the following, and name the noun 
or the pronoun, if any, of the opposite gender: 



84 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

Nephew, songstress, widow, count, friend, him, lord, queen, duke, 
nun, bridegroom, hero, wife, actor, witch, mountain, tiger, daughter, 
heiress, male descendant. 

b. Write sentences containing the following: 

1. A pronoun in the third person, singular number, feminine gender. 

2. A proper noun in the third person, masculine gender. 

3. A pronoun in the first person, plural number. 

4. A common noun in the third person, plural number, feminine 
gender. 

5. A proper noun, second person, feminine gender. 



Jy ess 071 67 , 

The Office of Nouns and Pronouns. 

(Commonly called Case.) 

Siihject and Object. 

Take the words 

Stanley; the hear; chased; 
and see if you can tell which chased the other, Stanley or the bear. 
Which is the subject and which the object? 

Arrange them so that you can tell. 

How do you know now? By the form of the noun, or by its posi- 
tion? 

Change the position, and what becomes the subject? 

Now make a sentence with the pronouns he and them and the 
verb chased. 

Which is the subject? 

Could the other pronoun be the subject? Why not? 

How do you know? By the form of the pronoun, or by its posi- 
tion? 

Again, take 

'* Awhile the stranger eyed the maid," 
what is the subject? 

" Aivhile the maid eyed the stranger,'' 
now what is the subject? 

Conclusion: The subjective and the objective relations of 
nouns are shown by their position. 

The office, or relation, of most pronouns is shown by their 
form, as well as by their position. 



OFFICE— SUBJECT AND OBJECT. 8.5 

Exercises: 

a. Analyze these sentences and tell the office of each 
noun: 

1. The boj' grew rapidly. 2. I met tlie boy. 3. That is the boy I 
met. 4. That one, the boy in blue, is he. 5. I am talking about that 
boy. 6. T am talking about that one, the boy in blue. 7. The boy's 
coat is blue. 

Notice that the noun hoy performs a different office in each of 
the foregoing sentences, but it does not change its form, except 
in (7). 

Substitute the plural of hoy, and you have the same result, except 
that (7) stands thus : 

The hoys' coats are hlue. 

Now substitute a pronoun for the singular noun hoy, and you have 
he, him, his. Make the pronoun plural, and you have they, their, 
them. From this you see that these pronouns change their form 
with each change in office, while nouns change their form only in 
the possessive relation. It follows, therefore, that while few errors 
can be made in the use of nouns, great care must be taken in the 
use of pronouns. 

b. Give the office of each noun and pronoun in the fol- 
lowing: 

1. I thank you for helping me. 2. Did you see us sliding down that 
hill? 3. He thinks you are the person who has done the mischief. 

4. The messenger whom we sent yesterday has returned with our letters. 

5. There goes my brother. Call him back, for he has started too early. 

6. This garden is Frank's greatest delight. 



J^esso/i 68. 

Office of Nouns and Pronouns. 
A'p'poB,%iion. 

1. Mr. Howard, the hook-seller, died last night. 
Bookseller is used to show which Mr. Howard. 

Mr. Howard (book-seller), died. (Explanatory word in 

\<^ ' parenthesis.) 



8b NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

2. We saw Mrs. Johnson, the milliner. 
How is milliner used ? 

3. They, they alone, have the right to be happy. 

The second they does not explain the first, but emphasizes it; so 
also with himself in (4) and (5). 

4. Mr. Howard himself sold the book. 5. She met Joseph himself. 
6. I will do it myself. 

Nouns and pronouns used thus, merely to identify or to 
emphasize a preceding noun or pronoun, are said to be in 
apposition with it. Apposition means placed with or by. 

Diagram emphatic nouns or pronouns like explanatory, as they 
are also appositional. See sentences 3 and 4. 

Nouns Used Adverbially. 
Notice the italicized nouns : 

1. He is six feet tall. 2. She walked three miles. 3. They arrived last 
week. 4. That is tifty per cent better. 

The italicized nouns are used adverbially to modify a verb or an 
adjective, and show a measure of time, size, distance, etc. They 
have the relation of adverbs only. 

Pronouns are never used in this way. 



Heisx tall 




noun used adverbially.) 



Exercise 



Select the nouns and the pronouns in apposition and the 

nouns used adverbially in the following: 

1. David, the shepherd boy, became king of Israel. 2. Last winter 
we read Ivanhoe, Scott's best novel. 3. The ride seemed ten miles long. 
4. The Nile, the only river in Egypt, overflows its banks yearly. 5. The 
careless boy ought to sweep the room himself. 



Ijesso?z 69. 

Office of Nouns and Pronouns. 
Nouns used as Objects of Prepositions not Expressed, 
1, Give me a penny=(to) me, 



ATTRIBUTES. Si 

2. My father sent Susie a pony=(to) Susie. 

3. They bought Hattie a piano=(for) Hattie. 

4. The teacher asked them five questions=(of) them. 

The italicized words in the above are objects of prepositions not 
expressed. If the preposition be supplied, it forms, with its object, 
an adverbial phrase, which must then be placed after the object 
complement; as, 

Gii-e a penny to me. 

Supply the preposition in each of the above sentences, 
placing the phrase in its proper place. 

IvEMARK. — When the preposition is understood, hnt not expressed, its object 
precedes the object of the verb, and it is inelegant to express the preposition 
uithout transposing the parts. 

Composition Exercises: 

a. Write six original sentences, two for each of the 
prepositions to, for, and o/, but let the preposition be under- 
stood. 

b. Supply the preposition in each sentence and transpose 
properly. Study to obtain smoothness and variety. 

Zesso7i 70, 

Office of Nouns and Pronouns. 

Attributes of the Object. 
(See Lessons 24 and 25, Part I.) 

1. They call this flower a weed. 
Is the verb call complete or incomplete? 
What is the office of flower f 

Is the sense complete if w^e say, " They call iliis floicerf" 
The office of weed, then, is to help complete the sense of the verb 
call and to describe the flower. 

In the lessons referred to we have learned that a word 
used in the predicate to describe or to identify the subject 
is an attribute of the subject. In the same way the object 
may have an attribute. Thus iveed is another name applied 
to flower, and is, therefore, an attribute of flower. 



o5 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

2. The President made Mr. Baxter governor. 

Governor helps to complete made and shows the office or position 
of ilf r. Baxter. 

That which helps to complete the verb and shows a pecu- 
liarity of the thing named by the object complement is called 
the Attributive Object, or Attribute of the Object. 

3. We believed him to be a good doctor. 

Here doctor completes to be but describes Mm, in the same man- 
ner as governor describes 3fr. Baxter. 

Note, — The verbal to be could be inserted in 2, and it is very nearly implied 
in 1. 

4. We believe it to be lier. 

Here her completes to be and shows identity of it, hence her is 
an attribute of the object, and the whole phrase is an attributive 

object. 

They , call / weed | flower. 



' Y ^. 



Note. — The line before weed slants towards the object, because "weed 
describes flower. 



We , believed 



be / her 
/A I it 



Note. — The lines before^the phrase and lier slant towards the object it, 
because her shows the identity of it. 

Ijesson 7/. 

Office of Nouns and Pronouns. 
Exercise : 

a. Analyze and diagram each of the following: 

1. They named the child Harold. 2. I consider you my friend. 3. 
I find this letter to be an expression of his opinions. 4. If you will 
come, we shall esteem it a great favor. 5. Howard made the prisoners 
his friends. 



OFFICE-POSSESSIVES. 89 

b. Write four original sentences containing attributive 
objects. 

Zesson 72. 

Office of Nouns and Pronouns. 

Possessives. 

Harold's crown. What does Harold's show? 
Coffman has ladies' gloves for sale, (kind) 
We use Howe's sewing machine, (kind) 
He received a monlh's wages, (amount) 
His crown, (whose) 
Their money, (whose) 
My friend, (whose) 

Notice that the noun, as well as the pronoun, here changes its 
form, although in a different way. This is called the possessive 
form ("case"), because it came originally from the idea of posses- 
sion, which it always more or less directly indicates. 

In analyzing sentences, these possessive nouns and pro- 
nouns are called adjective elements^ because they limit 
nouns. 

Diagram. 
Godfrey's book was made of parchment. 
book . was made 



parchment 



Have you heard of Watson running for office f 
This sentence is incorrect. It means : 

Have you heard of that action {running for office) as belong- 
ing to Watson? 

It should.be expressed thus : 
Have you heard of Watson's running for office? 
Write, as above, the meaning of the following: 
Do you know of Wilson's being sickf ' 




90 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

In the same way give the reason for the possessive form in the 
following : 

1. What need is there of a boy's using tohacco ? 2. A late frost was 
the cause of the leaves' curling. 3. My going at that time was a for- 
tunate occurrence. (Not me going.) 4. What is the use of women's 
studying politics? 

Diagram. 



^What 




Note. — The line is broken becatise studying is part noun and part verb. 

Thus you see that although the possessive generally 
limits a noun, it may also, to prevent ambiguity, limit a 
verbal used partly as a noun. 

The possessive idea may be expressed in still other ways, 
and these help to avoid unpleasant repetition and give a 
pleasing variety to our language. 

Examples : 

1. The house of Mr. Babcock. 

2. The cowt house=court's house. 

3. The state laws=state's laws. 

4. The place belonging to Mrs. Mitchell. 

In (1) possession is shown by the preposition of; in (2) 
and (3) by an adjective form making a sort of compound 
noun; in (4) by the words belonging to. 

Remark.— ^?(c/i expressions as court house, city police, etc., have been 
so long in use that the apostrophe has been worn out, and is no longer ex- 
pressed, Sfie also idiomatic pdssessives in Lesson 92. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 91 

Zesso?i 7o, 

Rules of Syntax, and Cautions. 
Nouns and Pronouns. 

I. All nouns not used adjectively to indicate possession 
are in the nominative, or name, form; as, 

The dog is here, (subject) I saw a dog. (object) 

See also the noun boy in sentences 1-7, Lesson G7. 

II. A noun or a pronoun used adjectively to limit a noun 
or a verbal, by indicating possession, origin, etc., is in the 
possessive form; as, 

Henry's top. My top. Our going. 

III. The possessive singular of nouns is formed by add- 
ing an apostrophe and s; as, girl, girVs; the possessive 
plural by adding an apostrophe only; as, girls\ except in 
irregular plurals not ending in s, which are then formed 
like the singular possessive; as, men, men^s. 

Exception.— Even singular nouns sometimes omit the s after the 
apostrophe, when there would be an unpleasant repetition of hissing 
"ounds ; as, 

The Princess' slippers. 

IV. The possessive pronouns never take an apostrophe, 
but change the word; as, 

he, his; 1, tuj; it, its; who, whose. 

V. When one possessive is in apposition with another, 

give the possessive form to the one nearest the noun they 

limit; as, 

I found it at Smitli, the jeweler's, store. 

Remark. — Some prefer to give the sign to the first of the possessives in 
apposition, particularly when the second has vxany adjuncts; as, 

I read an essay of Bacon's, the most eminent English philosopher. 

VI. When connected nouns show joint possession of the 
same thing or set of things, the possessive sign should be 
given to the one only that is nearest the noun they limit; as, 

AVheeler and Wilson's sewing machine, 



92 NOUA'S AND PRONOUNS. 

VII. Connected nouns showing separate possession should 
have the sign given to each; as, 

Duncan's money and not Frank's. 

Note. — Notice that when you can repeat the noun limited, you should 
repeat the possessive sign; otherwise, use but one sign. The above equals 
Duncan's money and nof Frank's money. 

VIII. A noun or a pronoun used to hmit a verbal should 
have the possessive form; as, 

There is no use of your swearing or of any man's swearing. 
Remark. — Compound nouns, and some groups of words equivalent to 
compounds, have the possessive sign given to the part nearest the word limited; 
as, father-in-law's house; the king of Burmah's jewels; nobody else's 
things, or, as preferred by some grammarians, nobody's else things. 



Ijesso7i 7^- 




Possessive Forms. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


., baby 


babies 


baby's 


babies' 


., wife 


wives 


wife's 


wives' 



Nominative form, 
Possessive form, 
Nominative form, 
Possessive form, 

E.EMARK. — The objective form of nouns is the same as the nominative. 
Exercise : 

In the same way, (1) write the Nominative form and the 
Possessive form of each of the following, (2) give the reason 
for writing each Possessive as you do, and (3) use the Pos- 
sessives in sentences: 

Brother, morning, child, fox, chief, lady, kingdom, sister-in-law, 
mouse, gentlemen. 

Jjesson 7^' 

Possessive Forms. 
Exercises : 

a. In the following tell what each expression means, and 
sliow why the possessive is formed as it is; 



DECLENSION. 93 

1. George the IV's temper. 2. The children's father has come. 3. 
You will fhid it at Willard's, Hale's, or Cook's. (Three stores) 4. You 
will find it at Smith and Tyler's. (Store) 5. The Mayor of New York's 
influence is great. (5. 1 should like somebody else's opinion. 7. Was 
Peter's occupation the same as Andrew's? 8. Do you use Brown's 
grammar or Reed and Kellogg's? 9. This piece of land is Mr. Jones's. 
10. The governor of California's term of office is four years. 11. Do this 
for conscience's sake if not for honor's. 12. The places of her two 
brothers-in-law were both flooded. 

b. Change as many as you can of the possessives in the 
above sentences to some equivalent expression, without pro- 
ducing awkwardness. 

Jjesso?i 76, 

Possessive Forms. 
Exercises: 

a. Correct the following, and state the rule for each: 

1. Do you use Robinson or Ray's arithmetic? 2. Mr. Hart is the 
childrens' friend. 3. My book's are better than her's. 4. The general's 
servants came on before them. (Two generals) 5. Was Cain's and 
Abel's mother there? G. I intended to meet you at Mr. Welch's the 
bookseller's store. 

b. Change to more elegant forms: 

1. Lazarus's sister. 2. Robert's wife's mother's sorrow. 3. An ac- 
count of the proceedings of the Teachers' Association of the State of 
California. 4. That house's windows. 5. For conscience's sake. 6. 
The city's police. 7. The county's jail. 



Zesso?i 77. 

Declinable Pronouns. 



We say: 



I am seen. We are seen. 

My hook. Our hooks. 

William sees me. William sees us. 

Here you see the different forms of the pronoun / corresponding 
to the diflferent offices it performs. 



94 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 





Sing. 


Plu. 


Nominative, 


I 


we 


Possessive, 


my 


our 


Objective, 


me 


us 



There are a few pronouns, seven only, that change their 
form in this way. When these changes are arranged as 
above, so as to show conveniently what form is used, the 
process is called declension, and the pronouns that change 
their form thus are called declinable pronouns. The 
declinable pronouns are /, thou, he, she, it, who, and whoever. 

Some pronouns do not change; as, which, that, etc. 





Declension. 






Sing. 


Plu. 


Nominative, 


thou 


ye or you 


Possessive, 


thy or thine 


your or yours 


Objective, 


thee 


you 


Nominative, 


he 


they 


Possessive, 


his 


their or theirs 


Objective, 


him 


them 


Nominative, 


she 


they 


Possessive, 


her or hers 


their or theirs 


Objective, 


her 


them 


Nominative, 


it 


they 


Possessive, 


its 


their or theirs 


Objective, 


it 


them 
Sing, or Plu. 


Nominative, 




who 


Possessive, 




whose 


Objective, 




whom 



Nominative, whoever or whosoever 

Possessive, wliosesoever or whose ver 

Objective, whomsoever or whomever 

Note.— The words whosever and whomever, though not given in stand- 
ard dictionaries, are sanctioned by good usage. 



RULES FOR PRONOUNS. 05 

J^esson 78. 

RuLfJS OF Syntax. 



IX. A declinable pronoun used, (1) as the subject of a 
verb, (2) as attribute of the subject, or (3) in apposition 
with any of these, is in the nominative form; as, 

(1) We are going. (2) It is I. (3) Mr. French, lie who helped us yes- 
terday, i.s president of the society. 

X. A declinable pronoun used independently is in the 
nominative form; as, 

Oh, happy "we ! He being absent, we. came away. 

XI. A declinable pronoun used, (1) objectively, or (2) as 
attribute of an object, or (3) in apposition with any of these, 
is in the objective form; as, 

(1) Let us go. (2) He thought the stranger to be me. (.3) I 
mean Joseph, Mm whom Pharaoh promoted. 

Remark. — It will be seen that an attribute noun or pronoun is generally 
in the same form as the word to which it refers, but such sentences as the 
following appear to be exceptions, for here the attribute after a verbal refers 
to a possessive and yet is in the nominative form: I have no doubt of its 
being he. (He refers to possessive its.) To say, I have no doubt of its 
being Ms conveys an entirely different thought. 

[Note to the Teacher. — Naming and describing in full the relations 
of the different parts of a sentence to one another is called analyzing. 

Indicating these relations by lines and position is called diagraming. 

Naming the parts of speech and giving their variations of form, and 
at the same time designating the relation of each to other words is called 
parsing. 

To give the part of speech of a word and its relation, with the gov- 
ernment and agreement, if there be any, is to construe a word, or to give 
its construction {i. e., how it is built into the sentence). 

A sentence, then, may be diagramed or analyzed; the words in the 
sentence may be parsed in full or construed only. 

To give to a pupil the ability to understand at once and clearly the 
full meaning of a sentence and the force of each word in the sentence, 
complete analysis is by far the most valuable exercise. If the pupil is 



96 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

required to state these relations clearly and tersely, the exercise is also 
a valuable drill in the use of language. 

Diagraming has the advantage of allowing many pupils to work at 
the same time, and to express their understanding of a sentence more 
briefly than in a full analysis, but it does not give the same culture in 
oral expression. 

Parsing is a convenient method of drill upon the classification of 
words, changes in their form, and their relation to the rest of the sen- 
tence, but it is of little or no value unless done rapidly enough to incite 
the pupil to quick and accurate thought in the application of correct 
forms in composition. For this reason, drill upon changes in form and 
upon the rules is the most practical part of parsing. But perhaps the 
exercise of the greatest value in a grammar class, is to require the pupil 
to give the construction of such words as the teacher may designate, for 
this shows at once and briefly whether the pupil understands the sen- 
tence and grasps the essential points of relation and inflection. 

In parsing and in giving the construction of words, the constant 
application of the rules and cautions will impress them upon the 
memory, and will work out the desirable end of giving to the pupil the 
results of the rules as well as the rules themselves.] 



Jvesso/i 79. 

Parsing Nouns. 



Exercise : 



Parse the nouns in the sentences below after the following 
formula: 

f Classify. 



Form for parsinj 
nouns 



Changes of form. 



Sing. Pin. 
{ Common. 
(Possessive. 
Person, Number, Gender. 
Use in sentence. 
, Rule. 

1. Harry, where is Ben's father? 2. One day a hungry fox was 
prowling around in search of food. 3. The Bushman uses a bow and 
arrow to shoot with. 4. The hen flew at the little girl's face. 5. Tabby 
crawled into the basket to steal a fish, but she got the end of her tail 
into the lobster's big claw. 6. What boy would rob a bird's nest? 7. 
Pronounce the word aged. 8. A bird's home is in a tree or under the 
eaves or in the chimney. 



ERROBS IN CONSTRUCTION. 97 

Ijesso?i 80, 

Errors in Construction. 
Exercise : 

Correct the following after this 

Model: 

Him and her quarreled. 

This sentence is incorrect, because him, used as one of the subjects 
of the verb quarreled, has the objective form, violating the rule : "A 
declinable pronoun used as the subject of a verb should be in the nom- 
inative form." The nominative form of him is he. Corrected, He and 
quarreled. Correct her in a similar way. 

Learn this condensed form for correcting: 

f Incorrect, because here used 

has the form, violating 

the rule: ''The ." 



The of is . 

L Corrected, . 

[To the Teacher.— Have the following sentences written outfullj'-in 
the correct form in note books kept b}' the pupils for this purpose, and 
have the correct form read frequently without the reasons, so that this 
form, instead of the false one, may make a lasting impression.] 

1. They that study diligently I will reward. 2. Cain's and Abel's 
mother was Eve. 3. That horses' hoof is injured. 4. The teacher said 
this was for you and I. 5. I have been reading an essay of Bacon's, 
the philosopher's. 6. His fathers' worth assisted him. 7. The blame 
was thrown from my shoulders to Mason. 8. The fault lies between 
you and she. 9. Who did it come from ? 10. I found this book at Ban- 
croft's the publisher's. 11. You shall ride on horseback after we. 12. I 
knew that it was him; who did you take him to be? 13. There is no 
fear of its being her. 14. They desired him and I to go. 15. Is there 
any need of him being so cruel ? 16. I had no idea of it snowing to-day. 
17. Some thought it was her. 18. Do you know whom it is? 19. There 
is no telling who he will call next. 



Jjesso?i 8/. 

Supplementary Analysis. 
As was shown in Lesson 70, a noun or a pronoun may be used 

7-G 



98 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

as the attribute of the object, and is then cailed the attributive 
object; as, 

They named the girl Virginia. 

We call him Sir Tristram. 

But nouns and pronouns are not the only forms of expression 
that can perform this office of helping to complete the verb or 
verbal by expressing some characteristic of the object. 

Give the office of the italicized words below: 

1. We call him proud. 2. They thought her /^-i-i^oZows. 3. They found 
him to be courteous and affable. 4. I knew it to be him. 5. Whom did 
you take him to be ? 6. He found his daughter grown to womanhood. 

Thus you see that adjectives and phrases, as well as 
nouns and pronouns, may be used as attributes of the 
object. 

Diagrams. 

We ^ cair / proud , him (Adjective used as attribute 

of the object.) 



courteous 

(Verbal phrase.) 



Note. — The line before courteous and affable slants towards him, because 
those adjectives describe him; as also does the whole phrase. 



owing 

'S womanhood 




He , found / /\ ^ i daughter 



^. 



DIAGRAMING, 99 

Sometimes the attribute of the subject or of the object is 
idiomatically introduced by the couj unction as. 
They employed her as saleswoman. 

as 
They , employed / "T" saleswoman [ her 



She was employed as saleswoman. 



as 
She I was employed \ ~F saleswoman 



Z^esson 82, 

Exercises in Analysis and Diagraming. 

You learned in Lesson 68 that a noun or a pronoun can explain 
a preceding noun or pronoun. Now notice the following: 

1. It\s. easy. What is easy? 
It is easy to make mistakes. 

2. It is strange. What is strange? 

It is strange that you have never made mistakes. 

3. The thought that he had made a grave mistake haunted him 
continually. 

1. Explanatory phrase: 

Y make , mistakes 
IW A J I Jg \ easy 

2. Explanatory clause: 

that 
you I have made i mistakes 






It C /\ ) 1 is \ strange 



100 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

3. Explanatory clause: 



that 



he , had 



made [ mistake 



thought ( A ) 1 haunted 




#. 




him 



Zesso?i 83, 

Exercises in Analysis and Diagraming. 
Or sometimes connects parts that are in apposition; as, 
We came to a small bay, or inlet. 
Notice the comma before the explanatory term. 



We ^ came 



or 



ha y (I inlet) 




Jjesson SJf., 

Exercises in Analysis and Diagraming. 

When an ellipsis occurs, and the word or words are clearly 
understood, use in the diagram a small cross (X) in place 
of each word to be supplied. 

Gol= X.go 



DIAGRAMING. 101 

He is wiser than she (is wise). 

He ^ is \ wiser 

% 

Note. — Some consider than a conjunctive adverb, others a pure conjunction. 

There is frequently an ellipsis after than or as used in 
expressing comparison: 

Ruth was not so cowardly as I (was cowardly). 

Ruth , was \ cowardly 



^ I X \ \ X 

When the noun is used adverbially to show a measure of 
weight, distance, value, etc., no preposition is needed. Use 
no cross. 

He ^ walked 
\ miles 



Remark. — Good usage has established the idiom went home, but when 
home has an adjunct, the preposition is supplied; as, 
He went to his own home. 
In this respect, home differs from other nouns used adverbially. 



1/688071 So, 

Exercises in Analysis and Diagraming. 

There are in good use some combinations, the words of 
which can not be disposed of separately. These are called 
idioms. 



102 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

One by one the sands are flowing. 



sands are flowing 

c^ \^ (Idiomatic phrase used adverbially.) 



^ 




Sin , has , tools 



Sin has a great many tools. 

(Idiomatic phrase used adverb- 
ially.) 




An adjunct may modify a whole phrase or a whole asser- 
tion. 



You are always in trouble. 



^ trouble 



You 



are 




That the man is an impostor being clearly demonstrated, 
we should be foolish to trust him again. 
we , should be ^ foolish 



That 



P trust I him 



<^ 



man 




, i's \ impostor 



(A verbal limiting a 
whole clause used 
as a noun.) 



demonstrated 



ANALYSTS. 103 

Note. — Place the absolute phrase below the predicate should be foolish, 
becatise it logically modifies the predicate, being abridged from an adverbial 
clause of reason. But as the conjunction has been dropped, there is no 
grammatical connection. 

Zesson 86, 

Sentences for Analysis and Diagrams. 

1. I thought the luaii a friend. (Attribute of the object) 2. They 
pronounced her insane. 3 I felt my fingers becoming numb. 4. You 
knew her to be unfortunate. 5. They christened the child Judith. 6. 
You will find her to be a kind and loving mother. 7. He is employed 
as book-keeper at Smith's. 8. Smith employs him as book-keeper. 9. 
It is evident that he served as captain in the Mexican War. (Explana- 
tory clause) 10. To argue down a vice is not the way to correct it. 11. 
The grammatical predicate, or word-predicate, is always a verb. 12. 
Hurrah, hurrah for Ivry and Henry of Navarre! (Consider hurrah a 
verb here.) 

13. What matter if you fall? (Supply the ellipsis.) 

14. What though upon her speech there hung 
The accents of the mountain tongue ? 
15. Wilton was not so foolish as that. 

16. "A stranger I," the huntsman said, 

Advancing from the hazel shade. (Parts transposed) 

Zesson 87> 

Analysts and Diagrams. 

1. Hand me the boat-hook, boys. (7b understood) 2. That branch 
is six inches longer than it was last week; so rapid is the semi-tropical 
growth in California. 

3. Now, man to man, and steel to steel, 
A chieftain's vengeance thou shalt feel. 

4. A boy is alwa5^s in a hurry to become a man. {Always modifies 
the whole phrase in a hurry.) 5. The brain is constantly at work. 
(=constantly working) 6. Charles Lamb was seldom in earnest. 7. 
What by work and what by economy, he has succeeded in amassing 
quite a fortune. 8. This fact having been announced, the messenger 
withdrew. 9. The fact that they could not have a holiday having been 
announced, the messenger withdrew. 10. Now it was, you observe, that 
the kettle began to spend the evening. 11. There was all the excitement 
of a race. 12. There being no law to the contrary, the cattle were 
allowed to graze on the common. (There is an expletive used to intro- 



104 ANALYSIS AND PRONOUNS 

duce the absolute phrase. There being no law to the contrary— no law to 
the contrary existing.) 

There 

law 



?:) \° contrary \^ing_ 



Jjesson 88. 

Analysis and Diagrams. 

Saint Augustine ! well hast thou said, 

That of our vices we can frame 
A ladder, if we will but tread 

Beneath our feet each deed of shame ! 

All common things, each day's events 

That with the hour begin and end. 
Our pleasures and our discontents, 

Are rounds by which we may ascend. 

Notice that there are several appositional. terms in this stanza. 



We have not wings, we cannot soar; 

But we have feet to scale and climb, 
By slow degrees, by more and more, 

The cloudy summits of our time. 

To scale and climb is a verbal phrase, compound adjunct of feet. 



we 


1 ^ave , 


, feet 






1 


\ and' 
V 


\ climb 
scale 



The heights by great men reached and kept 
Were not attained by sudden flight, 

But they, while their companions slept 
Were toiling upward in the night. 

Standing on what too long we bore 
With shoulders bent and downcast eyes, 



ANALYSIS. 



105 



We may discern— unseen before — 
A path to higher destinies. 

Nor deem the irrevocable Past 
As wholly wasted, wholly vain, 

If, rising on its wrecks, at last 
To something nobler we attain. 

— If. W. Longfellow. 



1 Nor 
X I X deem / 



wasted 



past 



<1 



106 PRONOUNS. 

CHAPTER III. 
PRONOUNS. 

J^esson 89, 

Antecedents. 

[To the Teacher.— The topics of Pronouns and Verbs are the two 
most difficult and most instructive in the whole subject of English 
Grammar, because tliese parts of speech undergo many changes in 
signification, use, and form ; and even when there is no change in the 
form of the pronoun, there is often a change in meaning that needs to 
be clearly understood by the pupil, in order that he may have a correct 
appreciation of language. And some of these changes, as in the num- 
ber and person of the pronouns wlw and that, affect, not the form of the 
pronoun, but the form of the verb following; as, I who write. Thou 
that writest. He that writes. They that write. There is no better field 
than this for the training of the power of discrimination.] 

Show what each italicized pronoun in the following sentences 
represents : 

1. General Grant completed liis book before he died. 

2. This hat that looks so shabby was good enough when it w^as 
bought. 

3. To be kind to one's neighbor is right, but it is not the whole 
duty of man. 

4. That Cortez conquered Mexico is true, but it is sometimes 
doubted. 

5. The man who thinks himself wisest is the most ignorant. 

The preceding substantive word, phrase, or clause for 
which the pronoun stands is called its antecedent^ from 
ante=hQiovQ-\-cedere=io go. 
Exercise: 

In the following sentences point out the pronouns and 
their antecedents, and notice what are most frequently 
used as antecedents: 

1. Among the Jews, education was restricted to the family, in which 
the father was the principal teacher. 2. The ocean is not the idle 
creature that it seems, with its vast and lazy length stretched between 
the continents. 3. It is my living sentiment, and it shall be my dying 
sentiment: independence now, and independence forever. 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 107 

4. Soldier, rest ! thy warfare o'er, 

Sleep the sleep that knows not breaking. 
5. The song that is the sweetest is the song that's never sung. 6. 
"There," said the Indian, addressing the officer, "are your countrymen; 
there is the enemy who waits to give us battle. Remember that I have 
saved your life." 

7. Yet this is Rome, 

That sat on her seven hills, and from her throne 
Of beauty ruled the world ! 
8. The branches of a pair of antlers served as hooks on which to 
hang hats and spurs. 9. There sat the very man for whom the captain 
and his men had searched far and near. 10. The aunt, who was one of 
the best tellers of ghost-stories in all Germany, had just been recount- 
ing one of her longest, and had fallen asleep in the very midst of it. 

. Ijesso?i 90, 

Personal Pronouns. 

In some sentences, as in the following, the pronoun has no ante- 
cedent expressed. Point out the pronouns : 

1. 1 am learning to think. 

2. Why are you doing it? 

3. Where is he going now? 

4. Get it for yourself, not for me. 

5. She despised herself for her cowardice. 

Give the person of each pronoun in the above sentences. 

You see that it is not always necessary to have the antecedent 
expressed in order to tell the person of pronouns. But when the 
antecedent is expressed, the pronoun must be so chosen as to repre- 
sent it correctly. 

(a) I who write this do it freely. 

(b) You who write this do it freely. 

(c) He who writes this does it freelj^ 

In (a) who represents the first person ; in (b) the second person ; in 
(c) the third person. 

It will be seen, therefore, that some pronouns do not show 
by their form »f what person they are. 

Which pronouns do show by their form of what person 
they are? See Lesson 77. 

Person, as here used, means, not an individual, brit the grammatical mod- 
ification called person. 



108 PRONOUNS. 

These pronouns are, therefore, called personal pronouns, 
because each shows its person by its form. 

The personal pronouns are /, thou, he, she, and it, with 
their different forms and compounds. 

Remark. — The personal pronouns have also a distinct form for number. 
Singular, he; plural, they. 

The pronoun it is often used without a true antecedent, and may have a 
phrase or a clause which explains it, and which, coming after, is really its 
subsequent; as, 

It is very easy to find fault. 

If the sentence be re-arranged it m,ay inean very nearly the same thing, and 
the it disappears. Thus: 

To find fault is very easy. 

In the above construction it seems to be an expletive. As this use comes 
under no rule of language, being merely a peculiarity of expression attending 
this word, it is called an idiom, and the expression is idiomatic. 

Another idiomatic use of the same word is found in such expressions as: 
It rains. It is very cold. 

There is no definite word for which the pronoun, if it is indeed a pro- 
noun here, stands. The construction, aside from its agreement, is very simple, 
and of agreement nothing, in this case, need be said. 

Lesson 9/. 

Exercises : 

a. Review the declension of each of the simple personal 
pronouns, Lesson 77. 

b. Make sentences, using the following forms of the per- 
sonal pronouns: 

1. First person, singular, nominative. 

2. First, singular, objective. 

3. Third, masculine, singular, nominative. 

4. Third, masculine, singular, possessive. 

5. Second, singular, possessive. 
G. First, plural, objective. 

7. Third, feminine, objective. * 

8. First, singular, possessive. 

9. Third, masculine, plural, nominative. 
10. Second, plural, objective. 

c. Fill the blanks with suitable pronouns, and see how 



POSSESSTVES. 109 

many different pronouns you can find tliat miglit be cor- 
rectly used in each blank: 

1. They sent Mary and to school. 2. Let John and go 

home. 3. May, Willie, and study grammar. 4. They all left but 

and . 5. pupils are studying language. 6. The teacher 

told boys to use our common sense. 7. The difference between 

you and is. you study the theory of language while 1 practice it. 

8. Who tore my book? . 9. John is taller than . 10. 

expect to be present. 11. expects and ■ to be 

present. 12. Who is there? . 13. That book is . 14. 

hats lie on table. 



Ijesso7i 02. 

PossiiissivE Pronouns. 

By the declension of the personal pronouns, Lesson 77, you see 
that there are two forms for all the possessives except Ms and its, 
the third singular, masculine, and neuter. 

Examine these sentences and notice how the possessives are used, 
calling 

my, our, thy, your, his, her, its, their, 
the first form, and 

mine, ours, thine, yours, hers, theirs, 
the second form : 

1. My father was a soldier. 2. Henry found your ball. 3. Honor thy 
father and thy mother. 4. We should obey our parents. 5. The child 
has lost its rattle. 6. I will use Henry's ball, and he may use mine. 
7. Have you foiind yours? 8. Theirs is much better than ours. 9. 
Your failure, not hers, is the cause of my anxiety. 10. Thine is the 
glory. 

Rule. — Use the first form of the possessive pronouns 
when the noun limited is expressed after the possessive, 
and the second when the noun is not expressed after the 
possessive. 

Exercise : 

Make sentences of your own, using both forms of all the 
possessive personal pronouns. 

The second form of the possessive generally equals the 
possessive and the noun it limits, as in the sentences: 



110 PRONOUNS. 

I will ride your horse, and you may ride mine, (my horse) 
She stole your purse, but has she theirs? (their purse) 

Remark.— Jw solemn style, mine and thine are frequently used before 
words beginning with a vocal sound; as, mine eyes ; thine enemies. 

Exceptions. — The expression, that letter of mine equals that letter of 
my letters or that one of my letters, but this friend of mine can not be 
expanded in the first way, for this friend of my friends means something 
quite different from this one of my friends. 

This heart of mine, That mouth of thine, are still more idiomatic 
and can not be expanded with sense, for a person has biit one heart and but 
one mouth. 

I/esson 93. 

Composition Exercise — Quick Oral Work. 

[Note to the Teacher.— The following is the practical application of 
declension. If done rapidly it will be very profitable, and will be enjoyed, 
by the pupils.] 

Give sentences containing the personal pronouns, as fol- 
lows: 

1. First form, first person, singular. 

2. First form, second person, plural. 

3. Third person, masculine, singular. 

4. Third person, neuter, singular. 

5. Third person, feminine, singular. 

6. First form, third person, plural. 

7. Second form, third person, plural. 

8. Second form, first person, plural. 

9. Second form, second person, plural. 

10. First form, second person, singular, solemn style. 

Miscellaneous. 

11. Nominative,, singular, third person, masculine. 

12. First person, nominative, singular. 

13. First person, objective, singular. 

14. First person, nominative, plural. 

15. First person, possessive, plural, first form. 

16. Second person, solemn stjde, nominative, singular. 

17. Third person, masculine, possessive, singular. 

18. Second person, common style, nominative, singular. 

19. Third person, masculine, possessive, plural, first form. 



COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. Ill 

20. Second person, common style, possessive, plural, second form. 

21. Second person, objective, plural. 

22. Third person, neuter, objective, singular. 

23. Second person, solemn style, objective, singular. 

24. First person, plural, objective. 

25. Third person, feminine, singular, objective. 

26. Third person, feminine, singular, nominative. 

27. Third person, plural, neuter, objective. 

28. Third person, singular, masculine, objective. 

29. Third person, singular, neuter, nominative. 



J/esson 9^. 

Compound Personal Pronouns. 
The compound personal pronouns are as follows : 

Singular, Plural. 

my-j-self our-f-selves 

thyself yourselves 

yourself yourselves 

himself themselves 

herself themselves 

itself themselves 

What suffix is added to form the singular? What suffix is added 
to form the plural? To what form of the personal pronoun is this 
suffix added in the first three singular compounds? To what in the 
first three plural compounds? In what persons are these com- 
pounds? In what persons are the remaining compounds? To 
what form is the suffix added in the last three, singular and plural? 

Rule. — To form the compound personal pronouns add 
self for the singular and selves for the plural to the first 
form of the possessive in the first and second person, but to 
the objective in the third person. 

Caution. — Hisself and theirselves are errors arising from not observing 
the last point of the above rule, viz.: The compound personal pronoun 
in the third person is formed by adding the suffix to the objective form. 

Use of the Compound Personal Pronouns. 

L I will do that myself. (Emphasizes 7) 

2. She told Joseph himself. (Emphasizes Joseph) 

3. You yoMrse// made a mistake. (Emphasizes ?/ow) 



112 PRONOUNS. 

In the foregoing cases the compounds are used simply 

for empJiasis. 

4. He liurt himself. 5. We injure ourselves when we neglect a duty. 
6. He talks to himself. 7. You wronged yourself to write in sucli a case. 

In these examples the verb is transitive, the action ter- 
minating on the actor. This is called a reflexive use, from 
re = again or hack -{-fleeter e, to bend; the action being hent 
back, and received by the actor. 

When used reflexively these pronouns serve the purpose 
of distinguishing the person or thing receiving the action. 

These words may be used reflexively after prepositions 
also; as, I did it for myself. We can do it among ourselves. 

In the above, notice: 

1. The compound personal pronouns change their form 
for number only. 

2. They may sustain either the nominative or the object- 
ive relation, but never the possessive. 

Remark. — When we wish to emphasize the possessive, we use the adjective 
own : as. She likes hex own home best. 



Ijesson 95, 

Exercises : 

a. Give the plurals of 

my, myself ; thy, thyself; him, himself ; her, herself; it, itself. 

b. Use each singular compound in a sentence for emphasis. 
Same with each plural. 

Use each singular reflexively. Same with each plural. 

c. Fill the following blanks with words used for empha- 
sis, or used reflexively, and distinguish the use of each: 

1. It is cowardly for a man to kill . 2. A wise woman will attend 

to her affairs. 3. I saw Charles instead of his friend, and he 

gave me his opinion. 4. I know it is true, for General Grant 

told it. 5. Be careful, or you will betray . 6. We have many great 

men in America who have raised from poverty and obscurity by 

their industrv. 



Form for parsing a personal 
pronoun 



COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 113 

Jjesso7Z 96. 

Agreement. 

'^ule, — A personal pronoun should agree with its antece- 
dent in person, number, and gender. 

' Classify. 
Decline. 

f Person. 
Antecedent, ! Number. 

if present, "j Gender, if any. 

t Rule for agreement. 
Form. 
I Rule. 

Eemaek.— TT7ie?i the antecedent is not expressed, no rule for agreement is 
given, and the Person, Number, and Gender can be determined only by the 
form of the pronoun. 

Exercise : 

Parse the personal pronouns, both simple and compound, 
in the following: 

1. As soon as the little silkworms are hatclied, they begin to devour 
the leaves of the mulberry trees on which they find themselves. 2. " I 
know why George will not go," said Rob ; " he is afraid he will fall down 
and hurt himself." 3. The raging storm grew faint and breathed its 
last. The restless clouds fretted themselves to atoms. 4. The tree 
stood again in loveliness ; she was dressed in more than her former 
beauty. 5. A wounded serpent will sometimes bite itself. 
6. Good friends, sweet friends, let me not stir you up 
To such a sudden flood of mutiny. 
They that have done this deed are honorable. 

7. If you '11 step in one moment, dear, you shall behold yourself. 8. 
I seated myself in a recess of a large bow-window. 9. Our arrival 
being announced, the Squire came out to meet us. 10. For ourselves, 
therefore, it is comparatively of but little importance whether England 
does us justice or not; it is, perhaps, of far more importance to herself. 



Connective Pronouns. 



Exercise 



Point out the adjective clauses in each of the following 

8-G 



114 PRONOUNS. 

complex sentenceSj analyze the adjective clause, point out 
the connective, and notice what other office each connective 
performs in the subordinate clause: 

1. People that do not like grammar think it a useless study. 

2. The boats that they had seen were not large. 

3. General Grant, who had been an inveterate smoker, died in the 
prime of life from the effects of the poisonous nicotine. 

4. Virtue, which is always its own reward, sometimes receives the 
condemnation of the world. 

A pronoun that connects to the antecedent the adjective 
clause in which the pronoun performs a substantive office, 
is called a Connective Pronoun. 

'Rem. AUK.— Connective pronouns have usually been called Relative pro- 
nouns, hut as personal pronoxtns also relate, the name seems inappropriate. 

Exercise : 

Point out the connective pronouns in the following, after 
this model: 

Model: 

The berries that she gathered were ripe. 

That connects the adjective clause that she gathered to the antecedent 
berries and is the object of gathered; therefore a connective pronoun. 

1. Humboldt, whom you have heard so often mentioned here, was 
a great traveler. 

2. The people and the animals that he met were new to him. 

people 



% -iV- 


, were \ new 


animals :/ \ 


H— 


he J met i 


^ him 

that 



3. Wheat, which is the most important cereal, grows abundantly in 
India. 4. Livingstone, who explored vast regions in Africa, tried also 
to convert the savages. 5. Such savages as became Christians were 
baptized. 6. As many people as could be seated heard the lecture. 7. 
I have more land than I want. 8. There is no sane man but might do 
better if he would try. 



CONNECTIVE PRONOUNS. 115 



\biit , might do 

Remark. — In this sentence the meaning is: There is no sane man who 
might not do better if he would try. The word but fills the office of both wlio 
and not. 



Zesso?i 98, 

The simple connective pronouns are who.^ which, that, as, 
and rarely but and than. 

Remark. — The connective 'pronouns agree in sense with their antecedents 
in person and number, but do not change in form to show this agreement. 

Exercise : 

Parse the connective pronouns in the following sentences 
according to this formula: 

f Classify. 

Decline, if declinable. 

Show what it connects. 
^ Agrees with antecedent :i^®^^^"- 



Form for parsing simple 
connective pronouns. 



(Number. 
Syntax and form. 
LKule. 

1. They also serve who only stand and wait. 2. He is a man in 
whom we can confide. 3. He who would thrive must rise at five. 4. 
Mr. Thorne is the farmer whose barn was burned last week. 5. He 
whom thou lovest is sick. 

Remark.— Who and "whicli may also be used in asking questions; as, 
Who brought it? Which did he find? Whom did you send? Which may 
also limit a noun and become an adjective: as. Which horse is it? Answer. 
The brown one. In such cases, who and which are not connective pronouns 
but interrogatives. 



Zesson 99, 

Connective Pronouns. 
What. 



She bought what she needed. 



116 PRONOUNS. 

This sentence equals, 

She bought that "virhicli she needed; 
or, 

She bought the thing which she needed; 
or, 

She bought those things which she needed. 

Hence what is a connective pronoun, having a double 
relation, and equals the antecedent that or those and the 
connective pronoun which. 

Exercise : 

Expand these sentences and give the construction of 
what, tell what it equals, naming the office (subjective or 
objective) of each part. 

Model: 

She bought what she needed. 

What equals that which. The antecedent that is the object of the verb 
bought. The connective pronoun which is the object of the verb needed. 

She , bought , X a^t 

Diagram: 

she , needed , wh X 

Note. — The first {X) to indicate the first part, that, understood, and the 
second (x) the second part, which. Put together^what. 

1. He did what was required. 2. She likes to see what is passing. 
3. He was not thinking of what he said. 4. What is mine is also yours. 

Composition Exercise : 

a. Use the connective pronoun what in as many other 
constructions as you can, in every case giving the office of 
each part. 

In sentences like the following, the word what has its 
antecedent after it, and equals an adjective and connective 
pronoun: 

He carries in his snuff-box what money he needs = He carries in 
Adj. Antecedent. Pro.. 

his snuff-box all the money that he needs. 



CONNECTIVE PRONOUNS. 117 

b. Make six sentences illustrating this use of what. Try 
to get a variety. 

c. Analyze, showing the different uses of the connective: 

1. That tall lady whom you saw is the very one that did it. 2. The 
horses that ran away were frightened by the windmill. 3. All that 
came were pleased. 4. As many as can be seated will be welcome. 5. 
These ducks, which I shot, are large ones. 

That, as, but, and what may have other uses than as connective pro- 
nouns, and thus become other parts of speech, as seen in the following 
table: 

That. 

1. I gave all that 1 had. (Connective pronoun) 

2. Parse the word that. (Noun) 

3. That leaf is torn. (Adjective) 

4. That is a sad story. (Pronominal adjective) 

5. I am very sorry that you went. (Conjunction) 

As. 

1. As is a very small word. (Noun) 

2. I bought as^ much as^ I could find. (1. Adverb; 2. Connective 
pronoun) 

3. He was sent as surgeon. (Conjunction) 

4. And the river became as blood (=like). (Preposition) 

Note. — As a preposition as is very uncommon. 

But. 

1. But has only three letters. (Noun) 

2. There is no fireside, howsoe'er defended, 

But has one vacant chair. (Connective pronoun) 

3. He went, but he could not stay. (Conjunction) 

4. They are all gone but me (=except). (Preposition) 

5. It is but right to pay your debts. (Adverb) 

6. He is but a man. (Adjective) 

What. 

1. Parse what. (Noun) 

2. She got what she deserved. (Connective pronoun) 

3. ir/iafisit? (Interrogative pronoun) 

4. What tree is it? (Interrogative adjective) 

5. ]T7iai.' is that all? (Interjection) 

6. ir/ia« fun this is ! (Emphatic adjective) 

7. TFTiaf miserable work ! (Emphatic adverb) 



118 PRONOUNS. 

8. What by patience and what by perseverance you will win ( =partly ). 
(Adverb) This use is very rare. 

Diagram: 

you [ will win 



S 



perseverance 



J^esson WO. 

Connective Pronouns. 



Exercise 



Determine what part of speech each italicized word is, 
by its "Qse, or office in the sentence, in all cases giving the 
office first: 

1. What have you in that hand? 2. What is what in that sentence? 
3. There is nobody here hut me ; hut we are safe. 4. Butter brings hut 
twenty cents a pound now. 5. The antecedent of what is not usually 
expressed. 6. The committee said that that that that that boy wrote was 
not so good as that. 7. But, as, that, and what may each be used as several 
different parts of speech. 8. I think it is hut just that you should make 
the confession. 9. I think it hut justice that you should be required to 
pay for the damage. 10. What! do you think it is so late as four 
o'clock? 11. There is no boy hut can do this if he tries. 12. I am as 
brave as you, but I do not want to go as a soldier. 13. What a hand- 
some man he is ! but what a voice he has ! 



Zesson W^. 

Compound Connective Pronouns. 

Examine wJioever, whichever, and whatever. 

The suffix ever is derived from the adverb ever, or the adjective 
every, coming from the same Anglo-Saxon root aefre, meaning all; 
hence its effect is to give the pronoun a broad meaning. 



COMPOUND CONNECTIVE PRONOUNS. 119 

Thus: Whoever means all who, or every person who, or he who. 
Whatever means all things which, or everything which. 

The compound connectives, then, expand like what, into 
antecedent and connective pronoun. 

Whoever is the only one declinable, and it changes the 
first part like the simple connective pronouns. The plural 
is hke the singular. 

Singula!- and Plural. 
Nominative, whoever or whosoever 

Possessive, whosesoever or whosever 

Objective, whomsoever or whomever 

Remark. — Sometimes the compound is used for emphasis; as, 
Take it, "whosesover it may be. (Partly independent) 

Tell whomsoever you meet— Tell [every one \ whom] you meet. 

The antecedent every one is the object of tell; the connective pro- 
noun whom is the object of meet. 

Whomsoever has the objective form. 

Twill punish whoever did that=T will pwnish [the one \ who] did that. 

The antecedent the one is the object of will punish. The connect- 
ive pronoun who is the subject of did. 

The compound has the nominative form. Hence the 

Ride. — The form of the compound whoever depends upon 
the office of the connective part. 

I will punish i one 

who , did , that 

Composition Exercise : 

Write six sentences containing compound connective 
pronouns; let two have whoever in the nominative form and 
two in the objective form. Aim at variety. Analyze each. 

J^esson W2, 

Exercise : 

a. Analyze the following and parse the italicized words 
according to this form; 



120 PEONOUNS. 



Form for parsing what 
and the compound i 
connective pronouns 



' Classify, 
Decline, if declinable. 

( Antecedent part. 
^^P^"^"^^«^tconnectivepart. 
The connective agrees with J Person. 

the antecedent in : j^lSumber. 
Sj'ntax of antecedent part, Kule. 
I Sjmtax of connective part. Rule. 



1. The court favors ivhomsoever it chooses (to favor). 2. He sold what 
he could spare. 3. TF/iai she did was good. 4. TFTiicAever you bring will 
please me. 5. The Emperor commanded whomsoever he pleased (to com- 
mand) to enter the army. 6. People talk of what interests them most. 
7. Whatever our visitors wish is at their disposal. 8. Whoever finds the 
horse may have my watch. 

b. Fill the blanks with the proper compounds: 

1. desires may join the excursion. 2. The chairman will 

appoint the committee recommends. 3. he appoints will 

serve for one year. 

c. Correct the following sentences: 

1. Whoever the children choose shall be queen. 2. We shall give 
the medal to whomever deserves it most. 3. Whoever we wait for 
must pay a fine. 4. Whomever rides in a carriage must pay for it. 

After correcting the above, diagram each. 



Zesso?t 703. 

Rules and Cautions for the use of Pronouns. 

Examine the pronouns in the following sentences, tell their per- 
son, number, and gender, and notice their antecedents : 

Every man who thinks himself perfect is greatly mistaken. 
Queen Bess resembles her father more than he did his; her temper 
was so violent that t^ often alarmed even her favorites. 

*I. Personal pronouns must agree with their antecedents 
in person, number, and gender. Connectives, only in per- 
son and number. 

Exercise : 

Correct the following: 



RULES AND CAUTIONS. 121 

I. If there be any one to help, let them come now. 2, Each woman 
brought their work with them. 3. The sun is a father to us, and we 
should love it. 4. We gave the horse oats, but it would not eat it. 5. 
Have you ever seen a lioness rave when its young were taken from it ? 6. 
Every boy should study for themselves. 7. Each moment is a treasure, 
and we should guard them well. 8. My teacher and friend gave me their 
advice. (One person) 

II. Two or more antecedents meaning different things 
and connected by and, require a plural pronoun; as, 

Mr. and Mrs. Curtis have returned from their wedding journey. 

III. Two or more antecedents connected by and, but 
describing the same person or thing, require a singular 
pronoun; as, 

This great lawyer and statesman has gone to Jiis rest. 

IV. Two singular antecedents connected by and, but 
emphatically distinguished from each other, require a 
singular pronoun; as, 

The good man, and the sinner too, shall have Jiis reward. 

Remark. — In this construction the words and and too have the same 
force that as well as would have. 

V. Antecedents connected by and, but limited by each, 
every, or no, require a singular pronoun; as, 

Every book, every ruler, and every pencil should have its place. 



J^esso?i W^, 

Rules for thp: Use of Pronouns. 

VI. Singular antecedents connected by or or nor require 
a singular pronoun; as, 

One or the other must take back /us (not their) word. 

Remark. — Thh rule applies to antecedents connected by as well as, and 
to antecedents one affirmative and the other negative. In the latter case, the 
pronoun agrees with the affirniative and not with the negative; as, 

The baker, as well as the grocer, has lowered his prices. Lucius, 



122 PRONOUNS. 

and not Claude, is expected to bring his horse. The boys, and not the 
father, should give up their seats. 

VII. When the antecedent is a collective noun taken dis- 
tributively, the pronoun should be plural; as, 

The jury could not agree, and so they were discharged. 

VIII. A collective antecedent conveying the idea of unity 
requires a singular pronoun; as. 

The Board of Education has its trials also. 

IX. Do not use pronouns needlessly; avoid repetition 
except for great emphasis. 

Henry he left her book here. Incorrect. Omit he. 

X. Do not use both the solemn and the common style of 
the pronoun you in the same sentence. 

Thou art my father's brother, else would I reprove you. Incor- 
rect. Change thou to you, or you to thee. 

XI. For politeness, the speaker should mention himself 
last, except when confessing a fault; as, 

You and /. 

XII. A pronoun should not be used to represent an adjec- 
tive, or in any place where reference to its antecedent would 
not be clear. Substitute a noun, use a direct quotation, or 
reconstruct the sentence. 

Incorrect: Be virtuous, which is more valuable than diamonds. 

Corrected: Be virtuous, for virtue is more valuable than dia- 
monds. 

Incorrect because not clear: Johnson told Williams that he would 
not be noticed, because he was so commonplace. 

Corrected: Johnson told Williams that he, Yvllliams, would not 
be noticed, etc.; 
or, 

Johnson said to WiUiams, ''You will not be noticed, because you 
are so commonplace." 



EULES FOR CONNECTIVE PRONOUNS. 123 

Zesson Wo. 

Work, under Rules for Use of Pronouns. 
Exercise : 

Correct the following: 

1. The committee were divided in opinion, so it referred the business 
to the society. 2. The crowd was so great that we could scarce!}^ make 
our way through them. 3. Suffer not jealousy and distrust to enter; 
it will destroj', like a canker, every germ of friendship. 4. My mother 
she thinks I am too young. 5. Either James or Milton has lost their 
cap. 6. This poet and philosopher had their little weaknesses. (One 
person) 7. Kow, my friend, I am going to help thee and lend you 
some money. 8. I and James and you will succeed, never fear. 9. 
Every soldier and every citizen should be ready to do their duty. 10. 
The rich man, and the poor man, too, is accountable for the use of 
their means. 

Composition Exercise : 

Write one original sentence under each of the rules for 
the agreement of pronouns in Lessons 103 and 104, and 
underline the word illustrating the rule. Be ready to assign 
the reason for the form of each pronoun used. 



Ijessofi /06, 

RiTLEs FOR Connective Pronouns. 

From an examination of all the sentences previously 
given upon the subject of connective pronouns, we deduce 
the following: 

Rulm for Connective Pronouns. 

I. Tf'Tio is used to represent persons and also animals and 
things personified; which to represent animals and things; 
that to represent persons, animals, and things, together or 
separately. 

II. That is preferred to tvho or ivhich in the following 
places, except when euphony forbids: 



124 PR0N0U^'S. 

(a) When having joint reference to persons and things; 



as 



The men and the horses that were in the lot were blown across 
the valley. 

(b) In a restrictive clause after an adjective expressing 
the highest degree of quality or quantity; as, 

He is the wisest man that I know. 

Remark. — A restrictive clause is one that limits to a specific person, 
object, or class the application of what is said. 

(c) In a restrictive clause after an antecedent otherwise 
unlimited; as, 

People that have honor will not trifle with it. 

(d) After the antecedent who; as, 
Who that saw her could believe her guilty? 

(e) After all^ very, or same; as, 
He is the very one that I met. 

(f) After the indefinite pronoun 2( ; as, 
It is you that did it. 

(g) To avoid ambiguity: as, 

He sent his boy to a school that did him good. 

Remark. — To say " which did him good " might seem to mean the send- 
ing did hivh good, instead of the school. 

(h) Whenever the propriety of using who or which is 

doubtful; as. 

The little babe that lies in its cradle. 

Remark. — A hahe can scarcely he called a person, and he represented hy 
who, or an animal or an inanimate thing, and he represented hy which. 

III. Use loho or which, not that, when a clause is not 
restrictive, but can be introduced by and he, and it; as, 

Garfield, i(;/iO was [and he was] a self-made man, rose to the high- 
est position in our country. 

Remark. — The non-restrictive clause should he set off by the comma. 



RULES FOR CONNECTIVE PRONOUNS. 125 

Ijesso7i W7> 

Rules for Connective Pronouns. 

Examine the following sentences, and notice the differ- 
ence in meaning: 

1. All the man's friends, who are very anxious, think he must be 
dead. 2. All the man's friends that are very anxious, think he must be 
dead. 3. All our sheep, which were on the mountain, did well. 4. All 
our sheep that were on the mountain, did well. 5. The parlor stove, 
which we never liked, was sold to-day. 6. The parlor stove that we 
never liked, was sold to-day. 

Exercise : 

Construct six sentences similar to these, and explain the 
difference in meaning caused by using that^ instead of who 
or tvhich. 

Remark. — The connective pronoun tliat should not follow a preposition. 
When that is the object of a preposition, the preposition must end the clause; 
as, 

This is a duty that all will attend to = This is a duty to which all 
will attend. 

As is sometimes used as a connective pronoun, instead of that. 

He cut down such trees as were not needed. He cut down the trees 
that were not needed. I will give you such as I have. I will give you 
those that I have. 

WJiose is the only possessive form of the connective pronouns, 
and it is used to represent persons, animals, or things. 

This is the man whose horse was stolen. This is the horse whose 
mane was trimmed. This is the mane whose shape is neatest. Here is 
a watch ichose works need cleaning. 

Remark. — The use of whose to represent a thing, can be and in many 
cases should be avoided by the use of a prepositional phrase; as, Sere is a 
watch, the works of which need cleaning. 

Zessou W8, 

Rules for Connective Pronouns. 
IV. To prevent ambiguity, place the connective pronoun 
as near its antecedent as possible: 



126 PRONOUNS. 

Incorrect: He is like a straw in the current of the Amazon that 
has no will. 

Corrected: He that has no will is like, etc. 

V. When several connective pronouns relate jointly to the 
same antecedent, the same pronoun should be used in each 
clause; as, 

The things that Madam de Forest brought from Paris and that 
were burned in the fire yesterday, were very costly. 

VI. A proper name taken merely as a name or in a sense 
not strictly personal, should be represented by which, not 
by who; as, 

Arnold, which is only another name for traitor, died a miserable 
death. 

VII. What should not be used instead of the conjunction 
that nor after an expressed antecedent; thus. 

You do not know but what you can do it, should he You do not 
know that j^ou can not do it, or, possibly, You do not know hut that 
you can do it. 

Jjesson /09, 

Errors in the Use of Connective Pronouns. 
Exercise : 

Correct the following: 

1. The lady which she mentioned is an heiress. 2. This is the warm- 
est weather which we have had yet. 3. The boys and the dogs which 
are romping on the common make great merriment. 4. General George 
Washington, that was our first president, was also an excellent farmer. 
5. People who knew him intimately say he was very systematic. 6. 
Who who is not systematic could be a successful farmer? 7. She saw 
in a window a bunch of beautiful flowers that she wanted greatly. 8. 
Do not call a child Nero, who is simply a name for cruelty. 9. This is 
the very plant which is described there. 10. It is strange what she did. 
11. People who believe in ghosts and that are always believing wonder- 
ful stories, must be very credulous. 12. How do we know but what they 
are insane? 13. The two men what were seen were Germans. 14. Who 
is he who dare insult a king? 15. Mr. Fox, which was very hungry, 



EXERCISES. 127 

thought he would hold an interview with Mistress Hen. 16. The sequoia 
is the tallest tree M^hich grows. 17. Sun-bonnets, that are very useful 
articles, are not as fashionable as they used to be. (Observe the comma.) 
18. Sun-bonnets that are generally made of light, cool material are the 
most useful articles of ladies' attire. 19. John Muir, that has written 
so many interesting descriptions of California glaciers, discovered the 
Little Yosemite. 20. The people and the animals which he saw on the 
journey were wild and savage. 21. Mrs. A. gave Mrs. B. for her son the 
dozen new handkerchiefs which she said she had hemmed for him. 22. 
That is the same bear which I tracked yesterday. 23. Men that work 
over hot quicksilver and who do not muffle their mouths, will not live 
long. 24. He is very avaricious, which makes any one become a miser. 



Lesson //6^. 

The connective pronoun used as the object of a verb may 
be understood, but as the subject must always be expressed; 
as, 

1. The picture you gave is a fine one. (That you gave) 

2. The friends that help us are those that tell us our failings. 

Exercise : 

Some of the sentences in Lesson 109 do not need the con- 
nective expressed. Rewrite them, omitting the connective, 
and state why it may be omitted. 

Composition Exercise : 

Construct a sentence under each of the seven rules in 
Lessons 106 and 108. 

Examine the following sentences, and notice that the third 
explains the first and second : 

1. All there escaped. 

2. All the people there escaped. 

3. All the people that were there escaped. 

1. Many in town did not know it. 

2. Many children in town did not know it. 

3. Many children that were in town did not know it. 

In the first, there is part of a clause modifying all, as seen by the 
third. 



128 PRONOUNS. 

In the first one of the second set, in town is part of a clause hm- 
itmg many. 

Adverbial expressions are frequently parts, or fragments, of 
clauses that belong to some noun as adjective adjuncts. 



Zesson ///. 

Interrogatives. 

Notice the kind of sentences: 

Tf7io found it? Where'? Whenf Howf 
Which house is it? Whose f How do you know? 
What man did you mean? 
What did you say ? Why f 

Each italicized word asks a question, and is, therefore, an 
interrogative word. Some are pronouns; as, who: some, 
adjectives; as, which: some, adverbs; as, why. 

(a) He said, ''14710 are you?" 

(b) He said, '' Where are you?" 

(c) He said, ' ' l^wc/i one are you ?" 

These three sentences are declarative, but each contains 
a direct quotation that is interrogative; who (a) being an 
interrogative pronoun, where (b) an interrogative adverb, 
and which (c) an interrogative adjective. 

Remark. — A direct quotation is the repetition of the exact words used by 
another person. An indirect quotation is a repetition of the thought with a 
change in one or more words. 

Direct quotation: He said, " I "will go." 

Indirect quotation: He said that he "would go. 

Remark. — A direct quotation introduced into a sentence by the words 
said, replied, answered, etc., should be (1) set off by the comma, {2) be 
begun with a capital, and (3) be inclosed in quotation marks. 

Diagrams. 
(Interrogative pronoun asking :) you . are \ Who 



INTERROGA TI } 'AW. 129 

(Interrogative pronoun in a you , are \ Who 

direct quotation; object clause:) 

He , said , 



Remark. — Ko connective is needed for a quotation, or for a question i(scd 
as a noun clause. 



you , are \ who 

r ' 



(Interrogative in an indirect \° know 

quotation ; ol)ject clause 

He , wished 



(A connective pronoun belong-— f 
ing to an adjective clause :) \^ 






who . found | it 



(d) He asks wJio you are. you | are \ who 

He I asks ; /\ 

(e) He asks where vou are. you , are 

He , asks , 



(f) He asks which one you are. you . are \ one 



He , asks 



; A V^ 



These last three sentences express the same thoughts as 
(a) , (b) , and (c) . The direct quotations have been changed 
to indirect, but the\^ still imply the same question, and the 
italicized words are still interrogatives. 

Notice that a question is implied in each of the following, 
also: 

9-G 



130 PRONOUNS. 

(g) He said, ''Tell me who you are." 
(h) I do not know who she is. 
(i) I have found out where you got it. 
(j) You can guess which horse won. 

Diagram. 



horse . won 



You ^ can guess , \^ 



Zesson //^. 

Interrogatives. 

Definition. 

An interrogative, then, is a word that asks or implies a 
question, and may be a pronoun, an adjective, or an adverb. 

Exercises : 

a. Pill the blanks, and tell whether you have inserted an 
interrogative pronoun, an interrogative adjective, or an 
interrogative adverb: 

1. found Moses in the river? 

2. did it happen ? 

3. woman did the princess appoint as his nurse? 

4. had his mother hidden him ? 

5. was his sister's name? 

Do these five sentences ask questions, or im^ply them? 

b. Fill the following blanks and notice whether the words 
ask or imply: 

1. Guess Moses was put into the ark of bulrushes. 

2. Tell in country it happened. 

3. Do you know his father was ? 

4. I have heard you like best. 



INTERROGA TIVES. 131 

Zesson //J. 

Interkogatives. 
c. Point out the interrogative pronouns: 

Who are tbej^? Of which did you speak? To what do you allude 
now? Give me a hint as to who they are. Who am I ? Who are you ? 
Who is he ? Who are we ? What am I ? What are you ? What is 
he? What is she? 

Notice that the interrogative pronoun does not change, whether 
the question is about one or more, or about male or female. 

As the question is always ahout some person or thing, 
the interrogative pronouns are always of the third person. 

W^hen asking about a person, however, we use who; as, Who is 
it? If the question is about a thing, What is it? 

There being no true antecedent, the gender and number 
can not be determined, as they are not shown in the form. 

Exercise : 

Analyze and diagram, noticing the office and form of 
each interrogative: 

1. Who comes yonder? (Nominative— subject) 

2. Who are they ? (Nominative — attribute) 

3. Whose hat is this? (Possessive — limiting) 

4. Whom did Peter strike? (Object) 

5. Of whom were they speaking? (Object) 

Zessou //^. 

Interrogative s. 
Composition Exercise : 

a. The declinable interrogative pronoun ivho has a nom- 
inative, an objective, and a possessive form. Construct two 
original sentences illustrating each form. 

b. Construct two sentences illustrating implied interrog- 
atives. Change each to a direct quotation and punctuate 
properly. 



132 PRONOUNS. 

c. Parse the interrogative s in the five sentences of Lesson 
113, using the formula for nouns, Lesson 79. 

[To the Teacher. — There is no particular gain to be derived from 
drilling on the interrogatives which and what, except to cultivate the 
power of discrimination; but drill on these can be added here if 
thought desirable.] 

Jjesson //J. 

Errors in the Use op Pronouns. 

Exercise : 

Correct the following according to the formula already 
given: 

1. Who did you buj^ that for? 2. Who did you see in town? 3. 
Whom is expected to-morrow? 4. Susie is the friend who I expected. 
5. No one can tell w^hat trials may await them to-morrow. 6. Sam and 
Fred, get yourself ready for school. 7. Who should I find there but he ? 
8. You have mine, and I have thine. 9. I have a new book, which, when 
I have read, you maj^ have it. 10. My father, and not a stranger, shall 
give me their advice. 11. The scissors have been taken from its place. 12. 
You have written this three times, which was not necessary. 13. The 
rotation of the earth on its axis, it causes day and night. 14. The com- 
mittee has reported favorably on the matter that they considered yes- 
terday. 15. Rye or barley, when they are scorched, may supply the 
place of coffee. 16. I and father and mother went to see the panorama. 
17. How do you know but what Mars is inhabited ? 18. When a dish is 
set on this table, it should be wiped first. 19. Whom do you think has 
arrived? 20. Who, I ask, who sees me now, can doubt my story? 21. 
Mother and father, they do not want me to go to sea. 



Zesso7i 7W, 

Errors in the Use of Pronouns. 
Exercise : 

Correct as in Lesson 115. 

22. The grocer told the baker that his horse had run away. 23. My 
brother is not so slow as me. 24. It is you who need to be temperate. 

25. Let falsehood be a stranger to your lips, a stranger to thy heart. 

26. Dudley, that was here to-day, is president of our society. 27. This 
is the best which can be had. 28. The merchant bought a suit of clothes 



INTERROGA TIVES. 1 88 

and gave them to the poor boy. 29. He is not the same man whicli lie 
once was. 30. Tlie boiler can not be tested to-day that has just been 
finished. 31. In every movement self-possession and grace showed 
itself. 32. The moon shed his silvery beams over the landscape. 33. 
Dr. Blake sent his i)atient to a climate which helped him. 34. You 
may invite whomever will be the best company. 35. He was the wisest 
man whom 1 ever knew. 3G. He is as foolish as a little child who 
reaches out to grasp the moon. 37. The passengers and baggage which 
had arrived were taken to the hotel. 38. The father and guide of your 
childhood will prove themselves the friend of your riper years. 39. 
Let him be who he may, I will not obey such an unjust command. 

Zesso7i //7, 

Errors in the Use of Pronouns. 
Exercise : 

Correct as in Lessons 115 and 116. 

40. The friends whom I hoped to meet, and that had promised to 
wait for me, were not at the station. 41. We were surprised to see 
Lucius talking with Andrew, because we knew that he was his enemy. 
42. The committee separated to go to its dinner. 43. These apples, if 
they had been sorted sooner, they would not have spoiled so rapidly. 
44. That bright star set at six o'clock this morning which we saw rise 
last night. 45. The soldiers dispersed the crowd who had gathered. 40. 
Get me the red and black ink ; they will both be useful. 47. Parliament 
overtaxed the American colonies, which caused the Revolution. 48. 
Animals which live upon plants are called herbivorous. 49. Every 
team and every steamer is loaded to their utmost capacity. 50. The 
same person is both policeman and sheriff and they are kept very busy. 
51. It was Fred, and not Henry, that hurt themselves with a knife. 52. 
The company have disbanded because it could not agree. 53. He did 
not say but what we were welcome. 54. The man should first count 
the cost who attempts to oppose nature. 55, It is in poor taste for any 
one to praise themselves. 5G. If my aunt or my sister comes, tell them 
I will be back soon. 57. He needs no book that can not see. 58. You 
are as tall as her. 



134 ADJECTIVES. 

CHAPTER IV. 

ADJECTIVES. 

Zesson f/8. 

Classes of Adjectives. 
Limiting — Descriptive. 
Review the definition of an adjective in Lesson 50. 

1. Boys are playing. Here the noun boys can mean any boys and any 
number of boys. 

2. The boys are playing. Some particular boys, therefore the limits or 
narrows the meaning. 

3. Five boys are playing. Five limits by telling number. 

4. Each boy plays. Each limits by applying the noun to the indi- 
viduals separately. 

5. My eyes are blue. The possessive pronoun my limits to particular 
eyes ; blue describes them. 

6. Platinum is hard. The adjective hard describes the platinum by 
telling quality. 

7. That sick child will die. That limits by pointing out, and sick 
describes by showing condition. 

8. He is in an upper room. Upper describes room by showing its 
position. 

Thus yon see that there are two classes of adjectives — 
limiting and descriptive. 

Limiting adjectives do not describe, but descriptive adjec- 
tives often limit as well as describe. 

By examining the sentences above, you will see that 
limiting adjectives show how far the meaning of the noun 
extends, by pointing out, numbering, separating, etc., and 
that descriptive adjectives describe the real person or thing 
by showing quality, position, condition, etc. 

1. The horse is a noble animal. 2. Hand me an orange. 3. Every 
star is a sun. 

These limiting adjectives — a or an and the — are often 
called articles. The points out some particular thing or 



CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES 135 

Bet of things, and a or an limits to one, but not any par- 
ticular one. 

Remark.— A and an are different forms of the same word, from the 
Anglo-Saxon root an meaning one ; for euphomj the n is dropped before sub- 
vocal ar aspirate sounds. 

The is occnsionalhj an adverb; as, The more haste the less speed. 

A is sometimes, though rarely, used as a preposition; as, He went a fish- 
ing (on fishing). 

Zesso?i no. 

Classes of Adjectives. 

PronominoJ. 

Examine the italicized words below : 
Some people are happy, other peoi)le are not. 

Some and other are limiting adjectives. 

By leaving out the noun people we can say, 

Some are happy, others are not. 

Few men are wholly bad. Few are wholl}^ bad. 

The first ^re (pupils) recited well. 

This has a good flavor=:This (peach or apple). 

Each should do his duty=Each (person). 

When limiting adjectives are used instead of the nouns 
that they limit, they are called pronominal adjectives, 
(something like pronouns). They are, however, not pro- 
nouns, because the nouns for which they stand, though not 
expressed, are understood, and if supplied, would follow 
these adjectives. 

When the nouns are expressed with such adjectives, the 
latter are then simply lirnitiyig adjectives, no longer pro- 
nominal. 

Remark. — 3Iost limiting adjectives, except the articles, m,ay become pro- 
nominal. 

Exercise : 

Point out the pronominal adjectives, and tell what noun 
is understood: 



136 ADJECTIVES. 

1. This is a good apple ; these are all ripe. 2. Don't take that on the 
upper shelf ; those in the fruit basket are better. 3. This one of the 
two girls is a mute. 4. The other is blind. 5. The other's vision is de- 
fective. 6. He pointed to the others. 7. Some people have money, I 
have not much ; perhaps you have more, but doubtless she has the most. 

By examining the above you will see 

In 1 and 2 that this and that have plurals ; 

In 4-5-6 that some other pronominals also have plurals and pcs- 
sessives, like nouns ; 

In 7 that some undergo another change of form, used to express 
degree, as, much, more, most; few, fewer, fewest. 

Remark. — This last change of form is called comparison. 

This is applied to objects near by; its plural is these. 
That is applied to objects at a distance; its plural is 
those. 

Singtilar. Plural. 

Nominative form, other, others. 

Possessive, other's, others'. 

Nominative form, one, ones. 

Possessive, one's, ones'. 

The possessive of another is another's, and it has no plu- 
ral, the prefix an meaning one. 
Composition Exercise: 

Write a sentence for each of the forms of this, that one, 
other, another. 

Iyesso?i 720, 

Classes of Adjectives. 
Interrogative Adjectives. 
What trees were burned? (Asking a question) 
trees , were burned 




i 

2. Guess what trees were burned? (Implying a question) 



CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 137 

trees were burned 



^. 



4 

X Guess I ^"^ A 

Exercise : 

AA^ite two sentences using which, and two using what as 
interrogative adjectives. 

Descriptive Adjectives. 

Descriptive adjectives may be used: 

1. To limit a noun; as, 

A warm day will start the young grass. 

2. As the attribute of subject or object; as, 

The sunshine is warm. The furnace made the room rvarm. 

3. They may also be used substantively; as, 
The rich do not always oppress the poor. 

Diagrams. 
1. dav 2. sunshine , is \ warm 



3. 


furnace , made / warm , house 






a. 
b. 


rich 1 do oppress , poor 




4.' 


X 1 do oppress , 


poor 


N. B.- 


—The noun may he supplied. 


\ 



138 ADJECTIVES. 

Remark. — Such descriptive adjectives as rich, poor, wise, good, beau- 
tiful, etc., when used substantively representing a whole class, have virtually 
become nouns, generally plural, and when plural, though singular in form, 
they require plural verbs and pronouns; as, 

The good are not always happy, though they deserve to be. 

The purely descriptive Adjective expresses 

1. Quality; as, 
An industrious man. 

2. Condition, or state; as, 
A sick man. 

3. Position; as, 
An upper room. 

There are others, like the following: 

1. A German university, A Shakespearian sonnet, called Proper 
Adjectives, derived from proper names, and always capitalized. 

2. An unheard-of event, A two-foot rule, called compound and 
written with the hyphen. 

3. Trying weather, Murmuring sea, A forgotten face, A forsaken 
wife, derived from verbals, and called Verbal Adjectives. 

Verbal adjectives differ from true verbals in having lost 
the idea of special time. They express a general charac- 
teristic of the person or thing to which they belong. 

Illustration. — A bird singing heneath my window awoke me. 
In this sentence, the verbal singing expresses an act as going on 
at that particular time — the time it awoke me. 

The nightingale is a singing bird, but the blue jay is not. 

Here singing expresses an act as a general characteristic belong- 
ing to the bird at one time as much as at another, and is, therefore, 
a purely descriptive adjective. 

Remark. — Noic7is may become adjectives; as. An iron spoon. The city 
police. 

Zesson /^/. 

Classes of Adjectives. 
Exercise : 

Point out and classify the descriptive adjectives: 



CHANGES IN FORM. 139 

1. The fragrant breezes fanned his burning brow. 2. We met a 
blue-eyed maiden among the romantic ruins. 3. It was in an 
upper chamber, the inner walls of which were hung with rotting 
tapestry. 4. The Italian government has undergone many im- 
portant changes. 5. The closing speech was made by the retiring 
president. 6. The child is well now, but he has been very ill. 

Composition Exercises: 

a. Write six sentences containing compound adjectives. 

b. Write six sentences containing proper adjectives. 

c. Write six sentences containing verbal adjectives. 

Zesso?t /22, 

Changes in Form. 

As you have seen, descriptive adjectives may show qual- 
ity^ condition^ or position^ of the real things. 

1. Walter is large for his age, but his brother Louis is larger. 
Large and larger express the same quality, size,h\\i larger shows that 

one of the boys possesses this quality in a greater degree than the other.' 

2. Alva is the largest one of the four brothers. 

Largest shows that Alva has the greatest degree of size of all the 
persons compared. 

Notice, then, that this adjective has three forms — large, larger, 
largest. 

Name two other adjectives that can have this change in form. 

This change in the form of the adjective to express differ- 
ent degrees of the same quality is called comparison. 

It would be verj' burdensome to our language to have a different 
form of the adjective for each of these degrees. Usage has settled 
upon three forms, for many adjectives, called the common, or posi- 
tive, form, the comparative, and the superlative form. With some 
there is a diminutive form, as yellowish, saltish. Many variations of 
degree are shown by joining an adverb to the adjectives ; as, more 
healthful, most healthful, less healthful, least healthful. 

Examine : 

large, larger, largest. 



140 ADJECTIVES. 

strong, stronger, strongest. 

... ( more amiable, most amiable, 
amiable, 

( less amiable, least amiable. 

Exercise : 

Use the above adjectives in sentences. 

Large, strong, amiable, yelloiv, are in the conimon, or simplest, 
form. (Usually called the positive) 

Examine these sentences; notice, (1) what things are compared, 
and (2) how many at a time : 

Ned is tall, but Will is taller. 

The mother is viore amiable than her daughter is [amiable]. 

Miss G's desks are smaller than Miss H's. 

The second book is less interesting than the others. 

The italicized adjectives used above are in the comparative form. 

The comparative form shows that two things, or sets of 
things, have been compared with regard to a certain quality, 
and that the one described by the comparative has more or 
less of the quality than the other. 

Examine these in the same way : 

He is the tallest boy in school, and the best scholar in his class. 
She is the youngest of four children. 

The three sisters have each a pony, but Susie's is the smallest. 
Of all the books I have read, this is the least interesting. 

This form is called the superlative. It shows that more 
than two things, or sets of things, have been compared in 
regard to a certain quality, and that the one described has 
the most or the least of that quality. 

Exercise : 

Write out the comparison of the adjectives in the four 
sentences above, in this form: 



Simplest form. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


wide. 


wider, 


widest. 


(happy, 
(merry, 


happier. 


happiest. 


merrier, 


merriest. 



CHANGES IN FORM. 



141 



Simplest Form. 
jable, 
(gentle, 
^narrow, 
] shallow. 

excitable, 
healthful, 



Comparative. 
abler, 
gentler, 
narrower, 
shallower, 
^niore excitable, 
]less excitable, 
more (or less) healthful, 



Superlative. 
ablest, 
gentlest, 
narrowest, 
shallowest, 
(most excitable. 
I least excitable, 
most (or least) healthful. 



Zesso7i 723. 

Changes in Form. 
Directions for Comparison. 

I. Most adjectives of one syllable, and those of two syl- 
lables accented on the last, or ending in y, le, otv, are com- 
[)ared by adding er to form the comparative, and est to 
form the superlative. 

In forming these different degrees, observe the rules for spelling. 

II. Other adjectives of two syllables, and those of more 
than two syllables, are usually compared by prefixing more 
and most for increase, and less and least for decrease. 

Remark. — More and most, less and least, //la?/ he construed either as 
adverbs or as a part of the adjective, expressing a degree of comparison. 

Note. — The choice of modes of comparison is often a matter of sound. 
Choose that which is most agreeable to the ear, if in accordance with good 
usage. 

III. Some adjectives are compared by a radical change 
in the word: 



Good, Vjetter, best. 



Irregular Comparison. 



Simple Form. 


Comparative. 


Superlatire. 


aft, 


after. 


aftermost. 


bad. 






evil. 


worse, 


worst. 


ill, 






far, 


farther, 


farthest or farthermost. 



142 

Simplest Form. 

fore, 
(Forth,) 
Good, 
Hind, 

(In), 

Late, 

Late, 

Little, 
(Many, 
tMuch, 

Near, 
Old, 

Out, 

Under, 

(Up), 

Top, 

Remark. — The words inclosed in parentheses are adverbs. Most limiting 
adjectives are not compared, though some expressing number or quantity may 
admit of comparison. Descriptive adjectives expressing qualities that can 
exist in one degree only, or are already in the highest degree, are not com- 
pared; as, round, dead, level, perfect. We may say more nearly perfect, 
etc.; and the comparative and superlative forms are frequently used in that 



ADJECTIVES. 




Comparative. 


Superlative. 


former. 


foremost or first. 




[furthest or 
(furthermost. 


further. 


better, 


best. 




[hindmost or 
(hindermost. 


hinder. 




[ inmost or 
(innermost. 


inner. 


later. 


latest. 


latter, 


last. 


less. 


least. 


more. 


most. 




[nearest, 
(next. 


nearer, 


folder, 
\elder. 


[oldest, 
(eldest. 


[outer, 
\utter. 


outermost. 
■ utmost, 
[uttermost. 




undermost, 
[upmost, 
(uppermost. 


upper, 




topmost. 



1/essoii 724^, 

Changes in Form. 
Exercise : 

a. Compare according to the above rules or exceptions: 

Wise, lovely, intelligent, much, lazy, pretty, graceful, hot, cold, 
capable, well, good, honorable, peaceful, hard, horizontal, eloquent, ill, 
sallow, tender, handsome, idle. 



RULES AND CAUTIONS. 143 

Some of these may be compared bj^ means of suffixes or of 
prefixes ; look in the dictionary when in doubt, 

b. Sum up your knowledge of the subject of adjectives 
by rapid parsing, after this form: 

1. Classify. 

C Simplest Form. 

2. Compare : - Comparative Form. 

C Superlative Form. 

3. Give Form. 

4. Give Use. 

5. Rule: "Adjectives limit or describe nouns or pronouns." 

Model: 

That boy is tall. 

'Common descriptive adjective. 

fTall. 
Compared: \ Taller. 
Tall [Tallest. 

Simplest form. 

Used as an attribute describing boy. 
Rule. — Adjectives qualify nouns and pronouns. 



Zesson /25. 

Rules and Cautions. 
The Articles. 

I. Use a or an to indicate one^ but no particular one; the 
to point out a particular thing or class. 

II. For euphony, use a before words beginning with a sub- 
vocal or an aspirate sound and an before a vocal sound; 
as a ball, an apricot, a task. 

Exception. — It is considered good usage to use an before the aspirate 
sound of "h. when the word is accented on the second syllable; as, 
An historian; an hypothesis. 

P^-KMAHK.— Subvocals, vocals, and aspirates, are sounds and not letters. 
We say an hour because h is silent and the word begins with the vocal 
sound of on. 



144 ADJECTIVES. 

III. When two or more connected adjectives describe 
different things, use the article before each adjective; as, 

We found a hot and a coki spring. (One spring could not be 
both hot and cold.) 

IV. When two or more connected adjectives describe one 
thing or set of things jointly, use the article before the first 
adjective only; as, 

A black and white shawl. (One shawl, but two colors) 

N. B. — A repetition of the article implies a repetition of the noun. 



Lesso?i /26, 

Rules and Cautions. 

V. Connected nouns emphatically distinguished from 
each other have the article before each; as, 

In choosing a friend, we should consider the character rather 
than the social standing. 

VI. Do not use the article before the names of virtues, 
vices, passions, arts, or sciences, taken in a general sense; 
before titles or words mentioned merely as words; or before 
a proper name in the singular; as, 

Milton thinks love is a virtue and anger' a vice. They gave her 
tlie title of M.D. HUl comes from the same root as column — not A 
hill comes, etc. 

Few expresses number, and little — quantity. 

VII. Use a few and a little when meaning some; feiv 
when meaning not many, and little, not much; as, 

I am content with a feiu' iriends and a little money. (Meaning 
some friends, and some money.) 

Note. — A few and a little mean more than few a7id little. 

VIII. In expressing a comparison with than, if both 
nouns refer to the same person or thing, use but one 
article; otherwise, repeat the article; as, 



EXERCISES. 145 

Mr. S. is a better carpenter than blacksmith. (He is a better 
carpenter than he is a blacksmith.) Mr. S. is a better carpenter 
than a blacksmith. (He is a better carpenter than a blacksmith 
would be.) 

Composition Exercise : 

Write a correct sentence illustrating each of the eight 
rules and cautions, Lessons 125 and 126. 

JjCSSOu /28, 

Errors in the Use of Articles. 
Exercise : 

Correct the sentences below by the following 

Model : 

He was an wise man. 

Incorrecl : Because an is here used before the word wise, begin- 
ning with a sub vocal sound, thus violating the rule: 

*M should be used before words beginnmg with a sub vocal or an 
aspirate sound." 

Corrected: He was a wise man. 

1. They found an liornet's nest, but were rescued by an young man 
in an uniform like that of a soldier. 2. Hattie has a elegant new dress. 
3. Is she a honest girl? 4. We staid a hour, an whole hour. 5. A frac- 
tion is one of the equal parts of an unit. 6. Kow we are studying not the 
noun but adjective. 7. Imitate the virtues, as well as manners, of your 
neighbors. 8. The hard and soft maple require very different soil. 9. 
The east and west boundar}' are a mile apart. 10. Ellen's aunt gave her 
two new handkerchiefs, a linen and silk. 11. The honesty is always 
the best policy. 12. She wrote another and a colder letter. 13. What 
is the original meaning of a memorandum? 14. Howard was always 
partial to the mathematics. 15. Wilson had a few friends because he 
was so surly. 10. As the waves were rolling high, but a little of the 
cargo and a few passengers were rescued. 17. You sent me less books 
than ordered. 18. Little (something) can be accomplished in so short 
a time, but not enough. 19. Few Japanese come to this country to study, 
because they wish to learn our manners and customs. 
10-G 



146 ADJECTIVES. 

Zesson /29. 

Rules and Cautions. 

IX. Whenever the adjective has a form to denote one or 
more than one, the adjective and noun should agree in 
number; as, 

This kind, these kinds, twenty pounds. 

But we may say a five-dollar piece, or a ten-foot pole, when the 
singular noun helps to form the compound adjective. 

The following nouns are singular in form when used with numer- 
als, but add s in other cases : 

Brace, couple, pair, yoke, score, hundred, thousand, etc. Two -pair of 
shoes. The}'' marched in pairs. 

X. Do not use adjectives for adverbs, nor adverbs for 
adjectives; as, 

His face looks cross. (]SIot crossly) Diagram. 
I scolded him well. (Not good) 

XI. Do not use the pronoun them as an adjective; say, 
Those scissors, not them scissors. 

XII. Use either and neither with reference to two things 
only; any and none with reference to more than two; as, 

Any of the six. Neither of these two. 

Jyesson ISO, 

Rules and Cautions. 

XIII. Use the reciprocal expression each other with refer- 
ence to two; and one another with reference to more than 
two; as, 

That couple are very devoted to each other. Neighbors should 
be kind to one another. 

XIV. When adjectives are of the same rank, and joined 
to one noun, they should generally be arranged in order of 
length, the shortest first; as, 

George is both honest and industrious. 



EXERCISES. 147 

Remark. — Terms are of the same rank when connected by and, or, or 
nor, expressed or understood. When in a series of adjectives of the same 
rank, one or more of the conjunctions is omitted, the adjectives must be sep- 
arated fro.n one another by the comma. 

XV. In a series of adjectives of different rank, place 
nearest the noun the one expressing the most distinguishing 
quality of it, or most closely limiting it; as, 

An intelligent young lady. 

lady 

It would not souud correct to say, 
"An intelligent and young lady ;" there- x,- wv> yo 

fore no comma, and the adjectives need 
not be in order of length. 



XVI. Be careful in the choice of adjectives; do not exag- 
gerate the idea, or repeat it; thus. 

Do not say, ''I have a horrible cold." (Look up the meaning of 
the word horrible.) Severe would be better. 
''He is wise and intelligent," repeats the idea. 




Zesso?i 737, 

Errors in the Use of Adjectives. 
Exercises: 

a. Correct the following hy model under Lesson 128: 

1. It is impossible for me to like those kind of peaches. 2. That tree 
is sixty foot high. 3. He walked very gentle. 4. She appeared beauti- 
fully that evening. 5. I have not seen .Jane this five daj's. G. It is 
uncommon foggy this morning. 7. What do you think of them sugar 
tongs? 8. Pass me those molasses. 9. Kone of you two can do this. 
10. Here are four horses, but neither v/ill do. 11. Twins are generally 
very much like one another. 12. Richard is an intelligent and full- 
grown young man. 1.3. Members of the same school should recognize 
each other on the street. 14. The three last verses are the best. 15. I 
have taken an awful cold. 16. The house is large and roomy. 17. It is 
beastly weather. 18. These sort of people are always quarrelsome. 

b. After correction, parse the adjectives in the above. 



148 ADJECTIVES. 

Zesson /32, 

Composition Exercise: 

Make a correct sentence under each of the rules and 
cautions in Lessons 129 and 130. Give a good reason for 
each adjective that you use. 



Zesso?z /33. 

Rules and Cautions. 

XVII. When ihi% and tlmi^ these and those are contrasted, 
this and these should refer to the latter of the two things 
mentioned, and that and those to the former; as, 

There was once a marked difference between the Spartans and 
the Athenians, these being noted for their hardihood, those for their 
culture. (For the true meaning, change the position of the terms, 
Athenians and Spartans.) 

XVIII. When the one and the other are contrasted, the 
one should refer to the former term mentioned and the other 
to the latter; as, 

The two brothers, George and Milton, were a striking contrast; 
the one was fair and amiable ; the other dark and fiery. 

XIX. Place adjectives so that they will clearly limit or 
describe the word intended; as, 

A box of fresh grapes, not A fresh box of grapes, unless a different 
thought is intended. 

XX. The comparative degree is generally used with 
reference to two objects, or sets of objects, and the superla- 
tive, to more than two; as, 

The Mississippi is longer than the Ohio. It is the largest river 
in the United States. 

Remark.— r/ie superlative form is often used hy good writers in compari- 
son of two things, particularly if there are only two in all. {His right hand 
is the largest) 



RULES AND CAUTIONS. 149 

Jjesso7z '/3Z-, 

Rules and Cautions. 

XXI. Avoid double comparatives and double superla- 
tives; as. 

This was the most unkindest cut of all. (Omit most.) 

XXII. When the comparative form is used, the latter 
term of comparison should exclude the former; as, 

My new horse is better than any I have ever had, should be 
than any I have had before. 

Remark. — The comparative is usually followed by than, the superlative 
is jneceded by the and followed by of. A comparative preceded by the may 
be followed by of; as, He was the wiser of the two. Som,e words implying the 
comparative are followed by to; as, superior to, preferable to, etc. 

XXIII. When the superlative form is used, the latter 
term of comparison should include the former; as, 



He was the best-natured boy in his class. The latter term 
includes the former term he. He w'as the best-natured of his asso- 
ciates is incorrect, because he could not be one of his own associ- 
ates — the latter term does not include the former. Therefore the 
superlative should not be used. 

XXIV. Do not use comparative terminations or adverbs 
of degree with adjectives that do not admit of comparison, 
and avoid comparing a thing with itself ; as, 

A more universal opinion, should be An opinion more nearly 
universal, or more common. 



Zesso?i /S5, 

Exercises Under the Rules in Lessons 133 and 134. 
a. Fill the blanks: 

Superlative. 
Which of the three brothers is the ? 

Comparative. 

That picture is any you have had , 

He was the abler man of . 



150 ADJECTIVES. - 

b. Correct the following: 

1. The poor want some advantages which the rich enjoy ; hut we 
should not therefore account those happy and these miserable. 2. Bring 
a new can of milk. 3. She was the most miserablest creature in exist- 
ence. 4. Mrs. Ha3^es was the most plainly dressed of any other lady 
present. 5. The most superior article can be obtained there. 6. Wheat 
is more nutritious than any grain. 7. Wycliffe should be called the 
father of English prose, if Chaucer is called the father of English poetry. 
The one was the courtly student, the other, the vigorous preacher. 8. 
This is the taller of the three trees. 9. A baked dish of pork and beans. 
10. The ignorant and the wise should live side by side ; then when these 
get into trouble, those could help them out. 11. Which of them two 
flowers is the prettiest? 12. I know a more preferable way. (Prefer- 
able implies a comparison of two.) 13. The most princij^al rules should 
be learned thoroughl5^ 14. The use of tobacco is, of all other extrava- 
gant habits, the most disgustingly selfish. 15. There is no vice so costly 
and degrading as drunkenness. 16. China is more populous than any 
country in the world. 17. The tower of Paris will be the tallest of all 
the other towers since Babel. 

Zesson /S6, 

Composition Exercises. 

a. Write two sentences, using the comparative form. 

b. Write two sentences, using the superlative form. 

c. Write two sentences, using adjectives that can not be 
compared. 

d. Write two sentences, contrasting this and that. 

e. Place a suitable noun after each of the following ad- 
jectives: 

Great, wise, high, long, bright, roaring, sleeping, fifteen, awful, 
terrible, pale, delicious, frosty, ripe, wet, a few, lean, natural, gay, 
these, those, that, persevering, stooping. , 

Zesson /S7. 

Composition Exercises. 

f. Prefix an adjective to each of the following, without 
using the same adjective twice: 

Deer, child, goose, hero, negro, work, fence, fear, delay, vices, 



EXERCISES. 151 

actions, story, porch, judge, mountain, woman, leaf, actor, traitor, 
wolf, attorney, body. 

g. Insert the definite article: 

Henry Eighth, reasons most obvious, man of means, new books, 
better way, first and last, high and low, three graces, how great 
provocation, all modern writers. 

h. Insert the indefinite article: 

Such power, open window, what incident, too great variety, uni- 
versal opinion, so great joke, uniform course, few dollars, little hope. 

i. Arrange each set of words so as to form a good sen- 
tence: 

(1) Good, one, is, man, better, a, community, for, than, hundred, 
ones, a, bad. 

(2) Gives, Earth, Spring, green, shroud, to, soft, beautiful, deli- 
cate, of, moss, a. 

(3) Round-faced, that, who, is carrying, boy, box, a, large, 
peaches, rosy-cheeked, of, has, a cheerful, heart, honest. 

(4) Hundreds, ferns, tall, of, graceful, wave green plumes, their, 
the, rocks, over, gray, 

j. Name all the parts of speech in the sentences you have 
arranged from the above. Parse the adjectives in the sen- 
tences you have made. 

Have vou used the comma correctlv? 



Jjesso7i /S8. 

Composition Exercises. 

k. Make six sentences, each of which shall contain three 
adjectives, one from each of these lists. Be careful about 
the comma: 



1. 


2. 






3. 


A 


long 






blue 


the 


dark 






sunny 


those 


tall 






meddlesome 


this 


lazy 






purple 


every 


bh]e-e\ 


•ed 




warm 


a few 


sweet-tem 


pered 


tender 



152 ADJECTIVES. 

Notice whether the adjectives are of the same rank or of differ- 
ent ranks. 

1. Write a sentence comparing the horse and the ox, with 
regard to height. 

2. Write a sentence expressing a comparison between the 
horse and all other animals. 

3. Write a sentence comparing the sea lion and the whale, 
with regard to any quality. 

4. Compare the story you heard last with all j^ou have 
ever heard. 

5. Compare with one another three flowers that you have 
seen. 



ADVERBS. 



153 



CHAPTER V. 
ADVERBS. 

Jyessou f39. 

Uses of Adverbs. 
The word adverb means added to a verb. 

You have ah*eady learned that adverbs may be added also to 
adjectives and to other adverbs. Let us examine some of their 
other uses. 

Notice what the italicized words modify and what they show: 

1. The boat approached rapidly. 

2. We saw a boat approaching rapidly. 

3. The officer ordered the small boat to approach rapidly. 

What does rapidly modify in (2) and (3)? 

4. That is exactly right. 

5. It lies exactly opposite the town. 

6. We have gone partly through the book. 

We , have gone 



book 




7. He stood just under the bridge. 

8. She is seldom seen. 

9. She is seldom at work. 

10. Some are always in a hurry. 



Some , are \ 



A 



154 ADVERBS. 

11. The heavenly bodies are perpetually in motion. 

Notice that (9) means seldom working, (10) means always 
hurrying, (11) means in perpetual motion; but (5), (6), 
and (7) can not be changed in this way. In these sentences, 
exactly (6), partly (6), and jws^ (7), modify the preposition 
following; but seldom (9), alivays (10), and perpetual (11), 
modify whole phrases. 

Next examine the following: 

1. Yes, that is my brother. 

that I is \ brother 




2. No, you can not have it. 

3. Perhaps he is the one. 

4. Surely goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my 
life. 

The italicized adverbs modify the whole assertion, and it 
is doubtful whether they should be construed as modifying 
any particular word in the assertion. 

Remark. — As these adverbs do not modify any -particxdar word in the 
sentence, some grammarians call them independent. Yes and no are called, 
also,responsives, because they can answer a question alone; as, 
Are you going? Yes. = Yes, I am going. 

Summary: Adverbs, then, may modify verbs, verbals, 
adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, whole phrases, or whole 
assertions. They most frequently, however, modify verbs 
or verbals, and, as verbals were formerly considered a class 
of verbs, the name adverh (ad-f verb) was appropriate. 
Adverbs having no other use are sometimes called simple- 
gAverhs., 



USES OF ADVERBS 155 

Exercise : 

Write two sentences illustrating each of the above uses 
of adverbs. 



Uses of Adverbs. 

Interrogative Adverbs. 

Besides these uses, adverbs may modify by asking or 
implying questions, and are then called interrogative ad- 
verbs; as, 

Where did he find it? Guess where he found it. When did you 
come? How can you tell? Sliow me how you tell. 

(See, under pronouns, the lessons on interrogatives.) 

Conjunctive Adverbs. 

Analyze and diagram the two following sentences: 

1. Come when you are ready. 

2. I go where I choose. 

What is the connective in each sentence ? What does the con- 
nective show? 

These are called connective (or conjunctive) adverbs, be- 
cause they join a subordinate clause to the word modified. 

A conjunctive adverb connects a subordinate clause to 
the principal, and modifies some part of either or both 
clauses. 

Many adverhs are abridged phrases. We can generally tell 
what word or words a conjunctive adverb modifies, by expanding 
it into one or two phrases, and then seeing to what each phrase 
would belong; as, Come when you are ready. 

Expanded: Come at the time at wMcli you are ready. 



156 ADVERBS. 



Diagram of Expanded Sentence. 



y , Come 



Y" time ("'^^ i^^^ ^^'^^ modifies come 

\ \ \ ^ and at which modifies ready; 

you are \ ready '^ V h.ence, ivhen modifies a word 

I \ \ ^^ ^^^^^ clause.) 
V which 



Diagram of Sentence not Expanded. 
X , Come 

you ^ are \ ready 



But in tlie sentence, 

/ saiv the field •where he luas shot, 
The conjunctive adverb where equals only one phrase, viz.: on 
which. 

The expanded sentence is, 

I saw the field on wMch he was shot. 
The phrase on which modifies shot only. 

Diagram of Expanded Sentence. 

I , saw , field 

he , was shot \ V^ 
I r \\ 

\ which 



Diagram of Sentence not Expanded. 



1 saw field 
he , was shot 



CLASSES OF ADVERBS 157 

CoNJUN'cTivE Adverbs. 

Composition Exercise : 

Write sentences containing the conjunctive adverbs 
because, until, before, as, where, and when; then change the 
adverbs to phrases, and determine what each adverb mod- 
ifies. 



Jyesso?i f4^2. 

Exercise : 

Review all the sentences given in the last three lessons, 
and notice again wliat each adverb shows; then what each 
in the following shows: 

1. Speak now. He wrote yesterday. I will doit soon. Wien will 
he come? (Time) 

2. Come here. Look upward. Where did you find that knife ? 
(Direction or place) 

3. She could scarcely speak. You are very kind. Lizzie is quite 
amiable. (Degree) 

4. Miss N. speaks distinctly. They came somehow. Do not act 
foolishly. {Manner) 

5. Why did he save the child? We can not go out in the boat 
because the wind is too high. [Cause) 

6. I was oidy joking. Robert has but one hand. She plays only, 
she does not sing. {Exclusion) 

7. She plays, and sings also. The baby sang, too. {Addition) 

■ Hence adverbs may be divided into the several classes, 
adverbs of time, place, degree, manner, cause, exclusion, addi- 
tion, etc. 

Remarks. — 1. Most adverbs of manner are derived from adjectives by 
adding ly ; as, 

Wise, wisely; sweet, sweetlj^; slow, slowly. 

2. Adverbs of exclusion and of addition are classed by some as adverbs 
of degree. 

3. Some adverbs are used merely for emphasis; as, 

Yes, indeed, it is very fine; no, indeed, you must not go. 



158 ADVERBS. 

4, Adverbs of time have various shades of meaning interesting to notice, 
hut perhaps not absolutely necessary; namely, time present, past, future, rel- 
ative, absolute, repeated, and order of time. 

5. Many words may be used either as adjectives or as adverbs; as, 

Hard, near, like, above, early, only, high, low, fast. 

Composition Exercise: 

Write two sentences under each kind of adverb, using 
words not given above, if possible. 

Lesson 74^3, 

Parsing Adverbs. 
Exercise : 

Classify the adverbs by telling whether simple, interrog- 
ative, or conjunctive, whether of time, place, degree, etc., 
and tell what they modify, according to the following 

Models: 

1. Have the men arrived yet? 

Yet is a simple adverb of time, modifying the verb arrived. 

2. They will wait until the wind goes down. 

Until is a conjunctive adverb of time connecting the subordinate 
clause, the wind goes doivn, to will wait, and modifying both will wait and 
goes. ( Until='antil the time at which.) 

3. Where did you see them? Where is an interrogative adverb of 
place modifjdng^Z/cZ see. 4. The fire went out while Susan was dreaming. 
6. They told her the news again, but she seemed scarcely to realize it, for 
she was nearlj^ crazed. 6. Speak gently to the erring. 7. But wherefore 
do you droop, w^hy look you so sad ? 8. The mail comes but once a day. 
9. Poor Lear became stark mad. 10. The affrighted people ran hither 
and thither, up and down. 11. Andrew is too particular. 12. Who 
comes oftener than I ? 13. Come earlier next time. 



Lesson /^-^. 

Comparison of Adverbs. 

Examining the last three sentences in the preceding les- 
son, you will notice that some adverbs admit of comparison 
like adjectives. 



COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 



159 



Foolishly, 


more fooli 


ishly, 


most foolishly. (Using the adverbs 
more and most) 


Often, 


oftener. 




oftenest. {Addition of er and est) 


Far, 


farther, 




farthest. {Somewhat irregular) 


Forth, 


further, 




furthest. {Someirhat irregular) 


Badlv or ill, 


worse, 




worst. (Irregular) 


Well, 


better. 




best. (Irregular) 


Little, 


less. 




least. (Irregular) 


Much, 


more, 




most. (Irregular) 



There are not many adverbs that admit of comparison, 
but a few var}^ their form to express degree, in tlie same 
manner as adjectives. 

Exercises : 

a. Prefix the comparative adverbs of increase to each of 
the following: 

Patiently, comfortably, easily, earnestly, economically, profit- 
aljly, secretly. 

b. Prefix the comparative adverbs of decrease to each of 
the above. 



J^esso7i ^A5. 



Notice the following: 

Hence, get thee gone! [Go] hence. 
Away to the meadows, away ! [Come] away. 
Do7vn, soothless insulter! [Get] down. 

Once more unto the breach, dear friends! [Advance] unto the 
breach. 

The italicized adverbs modify verbs understood, as shown by the 
words in brackets. The omission of the verb gives greater strength 
and animation to the sentences. 

Exercise : 

Select the adverbs in the following sentences, and see if 
you can strengthen the sentences by omitting one or more 
of the words: 



160 ADVERBS. 

1. Come here, my boy, take this bottle to the druggist for your 
m.other's medicine. Bun quick ! she may die. 

2. Go lience, go home, you idle creatures! 

3. Step forward, march! 

Adverbs, being more concise than their equivalent phrases, add 
strength to the language ; thus, 

Where is he ?=At what place is he ? Why f—For what reason? Wisely = 
In a wise manner. 

Exercise : 

Write ten sentences containing adverbs, and then change 
the adverbs to phrases, where possible. 



I^esson /fZ'G. 

Rules for the Use of Adverbs, and Cautions. 

I. Do not use adjectives for adverbs, nor adverbs when 
quality, not manner, is meant. 

II. Do not repeat or exaggerate the idea. 

III. The rules under adjectives, relating to the use of 
comparatives and superlatives, apply also to adverbs. 

IV. Be careful to place adverbs where they will make 
the meaning clear and the sentence smooth. 

Remark. — '^For the placing of adverbs no definite rules can be givenr — 
Goold Brown. 

(i) Those that modify adjectives or adverbs, prepositions, or whole phrases, 
almost always immediately precede them. 

(2) But those that modify compound verbs, generally follow the first part 
of the verb. 

(3) Good usage does not allow the placing of an adverb between to and 
the rest of the verbal. 

Examples : 

A very clear skj^ Quite slowly. Half-way around the grounds. He 
may not have done wrong. Merely to speak {not to merely speak). 

{4) But adverbs are frequently transposed for the sake of emphasis: 

I have to-day seen ten sea-lions. To-day I have seen ten sea-lions. 



EXERCISES. 161 

Composition Exercise : 

From the following list select a suitable word for each 
blank in the sentences: 

Sweet, firmly, badly, sad, harshly, harsh, firm, sweetly, bad, 
sadly. 

1. The man spoke to the child. 

2. Such expressions sound . 

3. The soldiers stood at their post. 

4. This red rose smells very . 

5. My friend spoke of her loss. 

6. The work is done. 

7. Your canary sings 

8. He is a brave man who refuses to yield to temptation, 

9. How she must feel. 

10. I feel to-day. 



Ijesso?i 7J^7. 

a. Use the following correctly in sentences: 

proud clear angry prompt bashful 

proudly clearly angrily promptly bashfully 

b. Explain what each of the following sentences means, 
and name the adjectives and the adverbs: 

1. She looks graceful in that dress. 

2. The platform was gracefully draped. 

3. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 

4. Slow and sad was the music she played. 

5. Have you talked with Herbert? No, I have only written to him. 

6. I only have written to Herbert. 

7. I wrote to Herbert only, yesterday. 

8. I wrote to Herbert, only yesterday. 

9. I wrote to Herbert yesterday only. 
10. Nellie has only heard of this book. 

c. Rewrite the last sentence, changing the position of only 
as many times as possible, and tell what each new sentence 
means. 

ll-G 



162 ADVERBS. 

Errors in the Use of Adverbs. 
Exercise : 

Correct according to the following 

Model: 

Petunias smell very sweetly at nightfall. 

This sentence is incorrect, because siveeihj, which is used to express 
quality of the petunias, not the manner of smelling , has the adverbial 
form, violating the caution: "Do not use adverbs when quality, not 
manner, is to be expressed." The adjective is sweet. Corrected: Petu- 
nias smell very sweet at nightfall. 

1. Such sentences sound awkwardly to me. 2. Some things are easier 
done than others. 3. This here knife is awfully sharp. 4. Which of 
those five horses runs the faster? 5. Miss C. sang gorgeously; she 
always sings better than any one I ever heard. 6. I can't do that there 
example. 7. She reads the most distinctly of any other member of the 
club. 8. Some children are in trouble always. 9. River vallej'^s are 
more productive often than great plains. 10. We know very little of 
her life previously to this time. 11. I like this fruit better than anj'' I 
have ever tasted. 12. Miss N. thought Mr. Simpson's the most prefer- 
able advice. 

Zesso?i /^e9. 

Parsing Adverbs. 
Exercise : 

After correcting the sentences in the preceding lesson, 
parse all the adjectives and adverbs, using the same formula 
for both. Write out the first six in the form of an abstract, 
thus: 

That is done more easily. 

Simple adverb of manner. 

( easily, 
Compared, ■< more easily, 
( most easily. 
' Comparative form. 
Modifies verb is done. 

Rule. — ''Adverbs modify verbs, verbals, adjectives, 
[, adverbs, prepositions, phrases, or whole assertions. ' ' 



RULES AND CAUTIONS. 168 

Note.— 7>i rapid parsing, it is better to repeat only the part of the rule 
that is applicable to the word parsed; thus, in the preceding sentence, ''Ad- 
verbs modify verbs.^' 

Zesso7i 750. 

Rules and Cautions. 

1. It is not pleasant to-day, I don't think. 

This sentence is intended to express a negative, but the second 
negative denies the first. "I don't think it is very pleasant to- 
day," is illogical. Say, '' I think it is not very pleasant to-day." 

V. To express one negation employ but one negative, 
placing the negative in the clause to which it really belongs. 

Remark. — Neither-nor are virtually but one negative, as they always 
accompany each other. "He is neither wise nor brilliant "="-He is not 
either wise or brilliant." 

Exercise: 

Write four negative sentences. 



2. I do not know whether to start or no. 

Supply the ellipsis and see what no modifies. No may be an 

adjective; as, 

She has no friends. 

It may modify a comparative ; as, 

No sooner said than done. 

Or it may answer a question, as, 

No, he has not returned. 

But it is not in accordance with the best usage to have no modify 

a verb or a verbal. Substitute not; as, 

I do not know whether to start or not [to start]. 

VI. Do not use no instead of not to modify a verb or a 
verbal. 



3. He said now the hoy could not resist temptation. 

Analyze the sentence. Notice the object of said. What is the 
connective? How is an adverb of manner. The proper connective 
for an object clause, if any is needed, is the conjunction that. 



164 ADVERBS. 

VII. Do not use the adverb how as a connective or with 
the conjunction that. 

4. I did not think it would grow that large. My father is that 
tall he can reach the ceiling. He has a pencil that long. 

Each of the above sentences, and all like them, would be better 
if so were used in place of that. While some of them may be barely- 
admissible in conversation, it will be far better for you to observe the 
following : 

VIII. Never use that as an adverb of degree. 



5. Most adverbs are contracted phrases. 

Thus : Thence means from that place. Whence means from what 
place. Hence means /rom this place or from this reasoning. There- 
fore it is unnecessary to put the preposition from before any of these 
words. Where means at what place or to what place; therefore to 
say, "Where is it at?" is to use the word at incorrectly. 

IX. Do not prefix the preposition from to the adverb 
hence, whence, or thence, or any other preposition to adverbs 
that already contain the idea conveyed by the preposition. 
Exercises : 

a. Correct the following: 

1. That poor child hasn't no father. 2. Have you inquired whether 
the tide will be high to-morrow or no ? 3. I was told how that it would 
be high tide at six p. m. 4. It was that cold that the fowls' combs were 
all frozen. 5. From hence we deduce the following rule. 6. Where is 
that policeman going to? 7. He is not very happy, I don't think. 8. 
If you have not neither dictionary nor reader, how do you expect to 
learn? 9. From thence they journeyed to Spain. 10. Mr. P. remarked 
how that his son was becoming unmanageable, but he had not got any 
bad habits, neither. 11. I know that much, at least, whether any more 
or no. 12. I never had nobody's knife nor nothing. 

b. After correcting the above, parse each adverb. 



I^esson /cJ/. 

Composition Exercises — Adverbs. 

a. Use the following adverbs in sentences, observing the 
rules already given: 



EXERCISES. 165 

Even, nevertheless, besides, withal, herein, thereat, afterward, till, 
almost, twice, hence, already, no, yes. 

b. Use three adverbs to tell how a baby cries; two to tell 
how a good boy studies; four to describe the roaring of the 
sea; one to tell how much you like music. 

c. Expand into phrases the adverbs in the sentences just 
made. 



Ijesso?i ^52, 

d. Make sentences in which some of the following adverbs 
shall modify adjectives and some shall modify adverbs: 

Very, somewhat, almost, too, generally, only, remarkably, nearly, 

e. Make two sentences for each of the following words, 
using each first as an adjective; secondly, as an adverb: 

Hard, most, but, what, no, less, early, long, much, most, only. 

f. Change these adjectives to adverbs: 

Perfect, square, good, slow, easy, smooth, harsh, much, gentle, bad, 
eloquent, faithful, pretty, whole, patient. 



Zesso?i /5S. 

Miscellaneous Exercises for Correction under Adjec- 
tives AND Adverbs. 

Correct by the full formula, or simply quote the rule vio- 
lated; then give the corrected form: 

L She is a small little girl. 2. The then monarch was tyrannical and 
vain. 3. Such a harsh course will produce nothing but evil. 4. That 
molasses isn't good for nothing. 5. The proud and the humble are 
often brought into contact; those form the door-mat upon which these 
condescend to wipe their feet. 6. The disputants grew excitedly and 
behaved very bad. 7. Try it over again, or she will scold you good. 8. 
Your garden looks some better now, but it needs watering most every 
day. 9. She was dreadful glad I came, but I only saw her once. 10. 
Helen nearly rowed across the river. 11. You are to only come when 1 
call. 12. 1 can do it easier than you can. 13. Henry was awful glad to 
meet the Portuguese sailor, who knew more about fishing than any 
man he ever saw. 14. The two sisters enjoyed one another's society. 
15..Wilkins was an idle and an ignorant man. 



166 CONJUNCTIONS. 

CHAPTER VI. 
CONJUNCTIONS. 

Analyze these sentences and notice what office besides that of 
connectives is filled by that and when: 

1. People that live in glass houses should not throw stones. 

2. The services were nearly over when we reached the church. 

Notice the use of the italicized words in the following : 

3. How sweet and solemn is this scene ! 

4. Sink or swim, five or die, survive or perish, I give my heart and my 
hand to this vote. 

5. Not Peter, but Paul, was the apostle to the Gentiles. 

6. What by diligence and what by perseverance, he overcame all 
obstacles. 

7. You may place the manuscript either in the box or upon the table. 

8. Napoleon was banished to Elba, but he would not remain there. 

9. She behaves as if she were insane. 

10. If you have tears, prepare to shed them now. 

11. I know that he is lost. 

The connectives in the sentences 3 to 11, inclusive, perform no 
other office than to connect. 

Connectives that perform no other office than to connect 
are called Conjunctions. 

Note.—The word conjunction = con (together) + jungere (to join). 

In sentences 3, 4, and 5, the parts connected are words of equal 
rank; i. e., performing the same office, or in the same construction; 
in 6 and 7, the parts connected are phrases of equal rank; in 8, 
clauses. 



I^esson fo5. , 

Coordinate Conjunctions. 

Conjunctions that connect parts of the same rank, or 
order, are called Coordinate Conjunctions. 
Remark. — The -prefix co means with, or together. 



COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. 167 

Remark. — Parts of a sentence are of equal rank when they have the same 
use, or construction. 

A coordinate conjunction may join: 

(1) Two or more substantive words in the same con- 
struction; as, 

(a) My father and I (two subjects) chopped wood all day. 

(b) Mr. Foster is a mason and carpenter, (two attributes) 

(c) You may have either coffee or tea. (two objects) 

(2) Two or more verbs having the same subject; as, 
We went to San Francisco and visited Golden Gate Park. 

(3) Two or more adjectives, verbals, or adverbs modify- 
ing the same word; as, 

(a) He is an earnest and, patient student, (two adjectives) 

(b) We can stop at the hotel either going^ or returning, (two verbals) 

(c) Try to work rapidly yet quietly, (two adverbs) 

(4) Two or more phrases modifying the same word; as, 
I am working for you as well as for myself. 

(5) Two or more clauses modifying the same word; as, 

I will visit you when the weather is warmer and when I have more 
time. 

(6) Two independent clauses; as, 

The wheat is all cut and the mowers will leave in the morning. 

(7) A word and a phrase, and sometimes a phrase and 
a clause, if they both modify the same word; as, 

(a) Keep your desks clean and in order, (a word and a phrase) 

(b) Do not play in the street nor where I cannot see you. (a phrase 
and a clause) 

Remarks. — The principal coijrdinate conjunctions are and, but, or, 
nor, while, yet, as well as, neither.. nor, either.. or, whether.. or, as. 

While, used to express time, is a conjunctive adverb; as, 

I will stay while you are away. 

Used in the sense o/and or but, it is a pure conjunction; as, 

While he is interested in our work, he has not time to help us. While or 
though he is mercifnl, he is also just. 

As is frequently used to introduce an attribute of subject or object; as, 

He was employed as clerk. 



168 CONJUNCTIONS. 

Z^esson /56, 

Subordinate and Correlative Conjunctions. 

Tn sentences 9, 10, and 11, Lesson 154, the clauses connected 
are of unequal rank. 

Conjunctions that connect clauses of unequal rank are 
called Subordinate Conjunctions. 

In sentence 11, the subordinate conjunction introduces a noun 
clause. 

Napoleon was banished to Elba, but he would not remain there. 

Diagrams. 

Napoleon was banished 



V Elba 

but \ — 

(Compound sentence. Coordinate 



he would remain conjunction, connecting clauses.) 



She behaves as if she were insane. 
She w behaves 



-.V 



she , were \ insane 



/ know that he is lost. 
that 



(Subordinate conjunction, connect- 
ing clauses of a complex sentence.) 



he is\lost (Object clause in a complex sentence.) 



I , know 



I 



Conjunctions joining parts in the same line of thought, 
showing addition, apposition, supposition, cause and effect, 
or introducing a complementary part, are copulative ; as, 

(a) She is both pious and intelligent. (Addition) 
(h) It costs ten cents, or one dime. (Apposition) 



SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. 169 

(c) If I were a giant, I could lift that rock. (Supposition) 

(d) //"you try earnestly, you will succeed. (Cause and effect) 

(e) 1 saw that she was injured. (Introducing the complement) 

Conjunctions connecting parts in different lines of thought, 
that is, denoting separation or opposition, are adversative ; 
as, 

(a) The dog would not eat the oats himself no7- let the horse have 
them. (Separation) 

(b) Henry is slow, hut persevering. (Opposition) 

Remark. — Two or more words taken together to perform one connective 
office, form a compound conj-nnction: as if, as though, as well as. But 
in such expressions as, 

He is as well as ever, 

weU is an adjective and the first as is an adverb modifying well. 

Some conjunctions and adverbs or adjectives are used in 
pairs, sustaining a mutual relation and inclosing one of the 
parts connected. Such words are called correlatives. 

Thus, in the sentence, 

You may place the manuscript either in the box or upon the table, 

the correlative either-or connects the phrases in that hox and upon 
the table; the first phrase is between the parts of the correlative. 

The first word of a correlative is usually an adverb or an 
adjective; as, 

He was so much interested in his book that he forgot the supper 
hour. 

He is 710^ only handsome hut also intelligent. 

His manners were such [manners] that genteel people would not 
tolerate him. 



interested 




( Tliat is the subordinate conjunc- 
tion correlative of so.) 



170 CONJUNCTIONS. 

Notice that words or phrases connected by a conjunction are always 
of equal rank, and all together form a compound element in the 
sentence. Clauses connected by a conjunction are sometimes of 
unequal rank. 

[Note to the Teacher. — 1. Words connected hy conjunctions are of 
equal rank, or in the same construction ; words connected by preposi- 
tions, of unequal rank. 

2. Let the pupils make an abstract of the preceding work upon con- 
junctions and give a topical recitation, with original examples.] 



Zesso7i /57^ 

Parsing Conjunctions. 

In parsing a conjunction, (1) classify, (2) show the parts 
connected^ (3) give so much of the rule as is applicable, as 
follows: 

1. A coordinate conjunction connects parts of equal rank. 

2. A subordinate conjunction connects clauses of unequal rank 
or introduces a noun clause. 

Remark. — A subordinate clause always limits, modifies, or completes 
some part of the principal clause; in this sense, all the noun clauses are sub- 
ordinate; i. e., subject and attribute clauses, as well as object clauses. 

In parsing a correlative, show what the second part of 
the correlative joins. 

Model: 

Sometimes people are so happy that they become selfish. 

That is a subordinate conjunction connecting the subordinate clause 
they become selfish to happy, through the correlative adverb so. 

Rule.— "A subordinate conjunction connects clauses of unequal rank." 

Exercise : 

Parse the conjunctions in the following sentences: 
L Ophelia was gentle and obedient, but her father was foolish and 
tyrannical. 2. Seldom, if ever, could one find a truer friend or more 
faithful counselor than Kent. 3. Though Lear had become insane, he 
was not past recovery. 4. Othello was either insane or madly jealous. 
5. Desdemona was neither false nor fickle. 6. Show me whether it can 
be done or not. 7. That matter is as important as this. 8. That mat- 
ter is not so important as this. 9. As you sow, so shall you reap. 10. 
As six is to twelve, so is fifteen to thirty. 11. She is so industrious that 



RUZES AND CAUTIONS. 171 

she must succeed. 12. She is not so industrious as to warrant success. 
13. His behavior was such that we were all shocked. 14. His behavior 
was such as to shock us all. 

Note. — Behavior is understood after the pronominal such, and the sub- 
ordinate conjunction as is used idiomatically to connect the infinitive phrase 
to such, 

behavior , was \ such 



shock US (all) 

15. American students are required to learn other things besides 
reading and spelling. 16. He would rather work than play. 17. Some 
people never have learned and never will learn industry. 



Zesso7i /5S. 

Rules and Cautions. 

From the preceding sentences we deduce the following additional 
rules and cautions : 

I. In the choice of conjunctions, have regard to the rank 
of the parts connected, as well as to their meaning. See 
sentences 1, 2, and 3 in the preceding list. 

II. Do not use conjunctions needlessly nor instead of 
other parts of speech; as, 

(a) When that she saw her mistake she was much confused. {That 
is not needed.) 

(b) Try and come, if possible. {To come is the object of try, and the 
meaning is not that the person addressed is both to try and to come, but 
to try to come.) 

And denotes addition: but, lest, while, and or, separation. 
Or may connect terms in apposition ; as, We came to a small bay, 
or inlet. The appositional term is set off by the comma. 



172 CONJUNCTIONS. 

If is used to express supposition, doubt, or concession ; though or 
although, to express concession ; as, 

Though she is a deaf mute, she is very intelligent. 

That introduces noun clauses, and adverbial clauses of purpose 
or result. It is frequently understood in a noun clause. Thus, 

I heard [that] you were there. (Noun clause. That understood) 
He behaves so strangely that people think him insane. (Adverbial 
clause) 

III. The following words are the proper correlatives; be 
careful to give them the right place in the sentence, that there 
maybe no doubt as to what they are intended to modify and 
connect. 

Note. — When the correlative is coordinate, the first of the terms to be con- 
nected, and nothing more nor less, should he placed between the two parts of 
the correlative. See 4, 14^ and 15, below. 

1. Either — or; as in sentence (4) last lesson, offering a choice. 

2. Neither — nor; as in (5), denying a choice. 

3. Whether — or; as in (6). 

4. Both — and; as. He is both saving and industrious. 

5. Though — yet; as, Though he slay me, yet will I trust him. 

6. As — as; as in (7), with an adjective or an adverb, to affirm 

equality, 

7. So — as; as in (8), denying equality. 

8. As — so; as in (9) and (10), affirming equality by means of 

verbs. 

9. So — as; to explain the degree ; as, How can one descend to 

a thing so low as theft? 

(This is abridged from the clause.) 

10. So — that; as in (11), with a clause following to express result. 

11. So — as; as in (12), with an infinitive following to show result. 

12. Such — that; as in (13). 

13. Such — as; as in (14), the clause in (13) being changed to an 

infinitive. 

So— as and such— as, in these cases, are well established idioms of 
our language, although exceptions to the rule that subordinate con- 
junctions connect clauses of unequal rank. The infinitive phrase is, 
however, abridged from a subordinate clause. 

14. The — the; as, The sooner you come, the better for me. 



EXERCISES. 173 

15. Not only — hut also; as, He inherited talent not only from his 
father, but also from his mother. 

Remarks. — According to the best modern usage, not is preferred to no to 
modify a verb or a verbal after whetlier — or. 

In poetry or — or is frequently used instead 0/ either — or, and nor — nor, 
instead of neither— nor. 

Exercise : 

Study the above list, and use each pair of correlatives in 
an original sentence. 

J^esso/i /ffO. 

Exercise : 

a. Fill the following with the proper connectives, and 
give reasons: 

1. He was not ashamed afraid. 2. My health is 

[health] I can not accept the position. 3. She is gay a 

lark. 4. three is to nine, is four to twelve. 5. He gave me 

good words, assistance. 6. The work was diffi- 
cult it discouraged him. 7. He tried very hard, he failed. 8. He 

can play, sing. 9. the man is a knave, he has never 

been arrested. 10. You must eat, you will die. 11. 1 paid fifty 

cents, half a dollar, for it. 12. sooner, better. 13. Who 

knows he is not industrious. 14. Tell me I must go not. 

b. Most of the following sentences are incorrect. Tell 
which are incorrect, give the reasons, and then give the 
correct form: 

1. My business is such as I can not accept the office. 2. There will 
not be as much this year as last. 3. Not only he gave me kind words, 
but also assistance. 4. He will not either study or work. 5. She both 
is careful and prudent. 6. Review frequentlj^, so as that you may 
strengthen your memory. 7. The work was as difficult as to discourage 
him. 8. How do you know but what he may come. 9. Review fre- 
quently that you may strengthen your memory. 10. Show me whether 
you can do it or no. 11. As the tree falleth so it lieth. 12. There is no 
earthly happiness so secure as it cannot be destroyed. 13. I must be 
so honest to admit that I am ignorant. 14. We feared lest some acci- 
dent had happened. 15. No one can deny but he is capable enough. 



174 CONJUNCTIONS. 

16. Is this book so useful as that one ? 17. California climate, and which 
is very temperate, has become world-renowned. 18. But matter is not 
mind, is certain. 19. Neither women or children were to be seen upon 
the streets. 20. She seldom or ever has her lessons. 

[To tlie Teacher.— Hold the pupil responsible, in all recitations, oral 
or written, for the application of all the rules of construction previously 
presented. In this way the study of grammar will cease to be a " mere 
rattling of dry bones."] 

Zesso/i /&/. 

Rules and Cautions. 

IV. When two or more connected terms refer jointly to 
another, each should make good sense with it; as, 

" It never has and never can be done," is incorrect, for the terms 
has and can refer jointly to he done, and never has be done does not 
make good sense. Complete the first term ; thus, It never has been 
done and never can be [done]. 

V. After else, other, othervjise, rather, and all comparatives, 
the latter term of comparison should be introduced by than, 
unless something additional is meant; as, 

He would rather work than plaj^ 

When something additional is meant, besides may be 
used instead of than; as. 

We have other lessons to learn "besides this. 

Exercise : 

(a) From the following, choose suitable words to fill the 
blanks in the sentences below, and give reasons for the 
choice : 

than, as, so, besides, but. 

1. I could not answer otherwise this. 2. The moon is nearer 

the sun, not brilliant. 3. Such tricks are nothing else 

knavery. 4. Truth is no sooner crushed to earth it rises again. 

5. Man is something else flesh and blood. 6. Henry is as studious 

his sister, he is not quick. 



EXERCISES. 175 

(b) Write two original sentences similar to each of the 
above. 

(c) Correct the following: 

1. He could not do otherwise but apologize. 2. Wilton is more active 
but not so persevering as his sister. 3. Such words are nothing else but 
insults. 4. The school should give the pupil something else than mere 
knowledge. 5. Man is no sooner forgiven but he sins again. 6. Vege- 
table diet is not as strengthening but more cooling to the blood than 
meat. 7. He has made alterations and additions to the work. 



176 PREPOSITIONS. 

CHAPTER VII. 
PREPOSITIONS. 

Zesson /62, 

Review the definition of a preposition, in Lesson 50. 

The word preposition = pre (before) andponere (to place). 

The preposition is generally placed before its object. 

Exercise : 

Point out the prepositions in these sentences: 

1. Look at me. 2. Go to town. 3. He ran into the barn. 4. She rode 
behind her brother. 5. You should come after me early. 

The words connected by conjunctions, as you have learned, are 
always in the same construction and of equal rank; but words con- 
nected by prepositions are of unequal rank. 



Diagrams. <J 



Conjunction : 
Preposition : 





plays 


She 


'Xi sings 


She 


plays 




V me 




\ 



Some of the relations shown by prepositions are illustrated in 
the following : 

1. He is rowing toward the shore. (Direction) 

2. She came /rom Canada. (Direction) 

3. This is the home of a millionaire. (Possession) 

4. Grace looks like her mother, and behaves like her, also. (Similar- 
ity, or resemblance) 

5. She is quite unlike her father. (Dissimilarity) 

6. He walked in the park. (Place already within bounds or limits) 

7. He walked to the park. (Direction) 

8. He walked into the park. (Position +direction=en trance with 
regard to a place or with regard to a new condition) 

( The boat touched at San Francisco. (Position at a point) 
9.-] We live at Soquel. (Position without regard to its hmits. 
( At=nearness or presence) 



OBJECT OF PREPOSITIONS. Ill 

10. Ella came tvith her father. (Accompaniment) 

11. Frank was stung by a bee. (Agency) 

12. She sits hy her window. (Position) 

[To the Teaclier.— There are numerous other relations shown by 
prepositions, but many of them require highly cultivated powers of 
discrimination, to distinguish their differences clearly. This must be 
a matter of growth. But since the choice of prepositions frequently 
depends upon the relation intended, the pupil should begin to make 
these distinctions as early as possible, and he should be led to observe 
carefully the usage of good authors.] 



Jjesso?i /63, 

The Object of a Preposition 

The object of a preposition, as you have already seen in 
analyzing the preceding sentences, is usually a noun^ a ][)ro- 
noun, or a pronominal adjective. 

Exercise : 

Give an example of each; then examine the following: 

1. Is there any use of a man's ^ising tobacco? 

2. I was informed of your having taken that step. 

3. We were talking about Mr. Black's having sold his handsome team. 

In the above examples the object of the preposition is a verbal 
phrase formed from the verbal in ing. 

Diagram. 
I , was informed 



^^ing taken | step (Verbal phrase, object 



V^ \x> of preposition.) 



4. They have not spoken of why they did it. 

5. There was much talk about who killed John Morgan. 

In the above, wliy and who are interrogatives implying a question, 
and the whole clause is the object of the preposition. 

12-G 



178 PBEPOSITIONS. 

Diagram. 



They have spoke n 




they , did it (Clause, object of 

>, preposition.) 

\1 



The following use is very rare: 

6. He did nothing b^it laugh. 

7. No way but to go on remains. 

Here but = except. In No. 6 its object is the verbal (to) laugh, 
in No. 7, to go on. 

He , did , nothing 

Diagram. 




Summary: A preposition, then, may have for its object 
any substantive word, a phrase, or a clause. 



List of the Prepositions. 
The following are the words generally used as prepositions : 

Aboard, about, above, across, after, against, along, amid or amidst, 
among or amongst, around, at, athwart; — Bating, before, behind, below, 
beneath, beside or besides, between or betwixt, beyond, by;— Concern- 
ing;— Down, during;— Ere, except, excepting ;— For, from;— In, into; — 
Mid or midst; — Notwithstanding; — Of, off, on, out-of, over, over- 
thwart; — Past, pending ;— Regarding, respecting, round ;— Since ;— 
Through, throughout, till, to, touching, toward or towards ;— Under, 
underneath, until, unto, up, upon ; — With, within, without. 

Exercise : 

Use each preposition in a good original sentence; consult 
the dictionary freely, and be careful to place the preposi- 
tional phrases where they will make the meaning clear. 

Remarks. — (1) Like and near were formerly considered adjectives or 
adverbs, with to or unto iinderstood after them; as, 



VARIABLE USE. 179 

She looks like [unto] her mother, and she behaves like [unto] her. 

The horse stands near [to] the brook. 

But since to or unto is never expressed after like and near, it is thought 
more reasonable to consider like and near the connecting words, like showing 
the relation of resemblance, and near of position. This is also trite of unlike. 

(2) The word worth often becomes a preposition, connecting a noun object 
or a participle to the word that the phrase modifies, and showing the relation 
of value; as. 

The book is worth a dollar. My life is not worth preserving. 



Lesso?i /65 . 

Variable Uses of Prepositions. 

Some words in the list given above may become conjunctions or 
conjunctive adverbs, or even other parts of speech : 

She went above me. (Preposition) Look above. (Adverb) The 
above list. (Adjective) 

They came after him, (Preposition) They came after he sang. 
(Conjunctive adverb) 

She stood before me. (Preposition) She went before he returned. 
(Conjunctive adverb) 

Since you are so repentant, I will forgive you. (Conjunction) We 
have not heard since he went home. (Conjunctive adverb) We have 
not heard since noon. (Preposition) 

The chief difference between a preposition and a con- 
junction or a conjunctive adverb is, that the preposition 
shows a relation between a word which is its ohject and 
some other word in the sentence, this object, if a declinable 
pronoun, requiring the object form; while the conjunction 
and the conjunctive adverb show no relations and therefore 
have no objects. 

Exercise : 

See how many of the prepositions in the list given, you 
can use as conjunctive adverbs. Remember that conjunc- 
tive adverbs connect clauses and modify something in one 
or in both. Make reasonable sentences. 



180 PREPOSITIONS. 

jDesson /66. 

There are no subdivisions of prepositions except tlie simple and 
the compound and a few derived from verbs and still retaining their 
verbal form. The compound prepositions are those composed of 
two words. 

Exercises : 

a. Use the following compound prepositions in sentences: 

Instead of, aboard of, as to, from among, from under, from 
between, round about, as for, previous to. 

b. Use the following, first as true verbals, then as prepo- 
sitions: 

Concerning, excepting, regarding, respecting, saving, touching. 

c. Use the following as prepositions: 
During, notwithstanding. 

Remark.— During is from dure, to last (ohs.), and notwithstanding 
from withstand, hu they are never used as verbals. 

Remark. — But a^id save are now classed as prepositions, when equivalent 
to except ; as, 

There was no one in the wagon but him (not he). 

Remark. — When the objective word after a preposition is omitted, there is 
no relation shown, and the word, although usually a prepositioii, becomes, in 
this case, an adverb ; as. 

He rode by ; Come in. (Contracted from Come into) 



Zesso7i i67. 

Parsing Prepositions. 



Exercise : 



Parse the prepositions in the following sentences after 
this formula; try to distinguish the relations, and notice 
the position of each preposition: 



Formula for parsing 
a preposition. 



Classify, 

Connecting its object 

to the by showing 

the relation of . 

Rule. 



CHOICE OF PREPOSITIONS. 181 

Model: 

He stood by the river. 

By is a simple preposition connecting its object, river, to the verh 
stood, by sliowing tlie relation of position, or nearness. 

Rule : A preposition connects its object to the word which the 
phrase limits or modifies, and shows the relation between them. 

1. Coflee was introduced into England by an East India merchant. 2. 
He Uves like a miser. 3. The town of Titipu is supposed to be located 
in Japan. 4. We drove through the large gateway, up the gentle ascent, 
to the door of the large mansion. 5. The pines at Pacific Grove are 
decorated with a fringe of gray moss. 6. The thief ran down the road, 
but finally threw his plunder down and escaped. 
7. The stag at eve had drunk his fill. 

Where danced the moon on Monan's rill, 
And deep his midnight lair had made 
In lone Glenartney's hazel shade. 

Jjesso7i /68. 

The Choice of Prepositions. 

Hule I. — Be careful to choose prepositions to express the 
relation intended, and to express it in accordance with the 
best usage. 

Remarks. — "^ happy and discriminating use of prepositions can he 
acquired only by an extended study of good authors." — Reed and Kellogg's 
Grammar. 

While this is certainly true, yet much may be done to direct that study and 
increase the habit of observation, by giving the student some of the most accu- 
rate conclusions derived from the experience of others. 

In the introduction to Worcester's Dictionary and in Campbell's '^Hand- 
book of Synonyms and Prepositions," may be found many useful suggestions. 

The choice of a preposition is frequently determined, (1) by the word pre- 
ceding it, (2) by the word following it, or (3) bij both together. 

The following suggestions may be of assistance in teaching a dis- 
criminating use of prepositions: 

Abide at a place. 

Abide by a decision. 

Abide 'With a person. 

Accommodate yourself to circumstances. 

Accommodate some one with a favor. 

Agree to a plan or proposition. 



182 PREPOSITIONS. 

Agree with another person. 

Angry at conduct. 

Angry witli a person. 

Appoint to a position. 

Appoint over another or others. 

Compare to = liken to by way of illustration. 

Compare with = to examine similar things with respect to quality. 

Consists in a single thing. 

Consists of two or more parts or things. 

Die by an instrumentality. 

Die of a disease. 

Different from. 

Differ from in regard to qualities. 

Differ with another in opinion. (Worcester.) 

Differ from another in opinion. (Campbell.) 

Disappointed in something obtained, but not satisfactory. 

Disappointed of something desired, but not obtained. 

Indulge in a habit ; as, theater-going. 

Indulge myself or himself with a single thing; as, a glass of wine. 

Intrude into a place having bounds ; as, into your presence. 

Intrude upon a person. 

Joined to a thing ; as, to his idols. 

Joined with another person in some plan or work. 

Live at a point without regard to its boundaries — (small or foreign). 

Live in a place having definite boundaries. 

Matter with (not of). (Campbell.) 

Need of. 

Want of. 

Part from another, each other, etc. 

Part with certain possessions— your property or children. 

Reconcile to — to make friendly. 

Reconcile with — to make consistent. 

Sank beneath that which covers— beneath the waves. 

Sank in something already entered, but more deeply. 

Sank into— from without— indicating entrance. 

Smile at a cause for laughter. 

Smile on a person to denote approval. 

Similar to (not with). 

Strive about a disputed matter. 

Strive for something desired. 

Strive with another. 

Taste for some accomplishment, occupation, etc. 

Taste of food, literally or figuratively. 

Touch at a point ; as, at San Francisco, 

Touch on or upon a subject. 

Worthy of, 



POSITION OF PHBASES. 183 

Choice of Prepositions. 

Composition Exercise : 

Put each preposition, with the word preceding it, in Les- 
son 168, into a sentence. Consult the dictionary freely and 
make as great a variety of sentences as possible. Make 
natural sentences. 



J^esso?i 770, 

Position of Phrases. 

Notice how many meanings can be given to each of these sen- 
tences, and give the meaning really intended in each : 

1. I met a woman in a carriage with a painted face. 2. We saw a 
dog chasing a cock out of the yard on three legs. 3. The village has 
forty houses and one hundred inhabitants of clay. 4. A man was seen 
by a child at work upon the suspension bridge. 

Rule TL. — Place the prepositional phrase where there can 
be no doubt as to what word it is to limit or modify. If 
for emphasis, or for any other good reason, a phrase is vio- 
lently transposed, set it off by the comma. Independent 
phrases also should be set off by the comma. 

Composition Exercise: 

Fill the following blanks and give the reason for the 
commas used: 

1. A beautiful valley lies the two mountains. 2. She rode 

Riverside Los Angeles. 3. Lincoln, the contrary, was a man of 

sagacity. 4. the beginning of the present year, the outlook is 

good California. 5. " Now there is Jerusalem, the sheep- 
market, a pool." 6. " Parting day dies a dol])hin, which each pang 

imbues with a new color." 7. This report is different the one we 

heard the Post Office. 8. He was angry his father, and con- 
cluded to indulge himself a cigar to calm his spirits. 



184 PREPOSITIONS. 

Ijesson 777. 

Choice and Position of Prepositions. 
Exercise : 

Correct the following sentences: 
Model: 

Wlien we were to my son Henry's, we met the General. 

This sentence is incorrect, because the preposition io is here used 
to express the relation of mere place, not direction, thus ^^olating 
the rule: *'Be careful to choose prepositions," etc. To properly 
shows direction; at shows place. 

Corrected: When we were at my son Henry's, we met the 
General. 

1. The dog sprang from the wharf in the water. 2. The cars arrived 
to Sacramento early in the morning. 3. I am angry with your behavior. 
4. I am angry at you. 5. He entered in their plan heartily. 6. I had 
great need for friends. 7. His father died with the cholera. 8. Your 
actions are very different to hers. 9. She wished a boat ride, but was 
disappointed in it as no boat could be procured. 10. These trees differ 
greatly with each other. 11. He lives in the bend of the river. 12. 
What is the matter of your arm? 13. The conduct of Lear's daughter 
Cordelia threw him in a great rage. 14. She divided the property be- 
tween her five children. 15. She lives at Chicago. 16. We went in the 
museum. 17. The farmer was averse from the settlement. 18. He 
staj^s to the store late. 19. The child has a strong resemblance of her 
mother. 20. That small man is talking with a big nose. 21. The boy 
was ridiculed for having been punished by his schoolmates. 

Zesso7i 772, 

Use and Omission of Prepositions. 

Study carefully the followdng explanations : 

1. Julia has given to me a beautiful flower. 

The object of has given isjioiver, and the pronoun me is the object 
of the preposition to; but it is customary, for the sake of euphony, 
to omit to, for, and of when the phrase is introduced by a preposi- 
tion showing direction, and when it is placed before the object. 
(See also Lesson 69.) 



USE AND OMISSION. 185 

Say, 

Julia has given me a beautiful flower ; 
Or, 

Julia has given a beautiful flower to me. 

In like manner correct these sentences : 

1. Charley's father bought for him a new gun. 

2. The examiners asked of the pupils many hard questions. 

2. The chimpanzee often acts like unto a human being. 

In this sentence iLnto is unnecessary, whether like is considered 
a preposition or an adverb ; for, if a preposition, like connects its 
object, hehig, to acts; if an adverb, the unto is always understood, 
never expressed, (^^ee Lesson 164.) 

3. I have a pony of three years old. 

Of is unnecessary, because the noun years is used adverbially to 
tell how old, and we have already learned (see Lesson 68) that 
nouns used adverbially do not need a connecting preposition. 

Rule III. — Do not use prepositions when they are not 
necessary to give connection to the sentence. 



Examine the following: 

1. The insect was the length of a pin. 

The expression the length of a pin is intended to describe a qual- 
ity of the insect ; but a noun used as the attribute shows the identity 
or office of the subject, hence the use of the noun length as the attri- 
bute of insect is incorrect. To express a quality of the subject, use 
a prepositional phrase ; thus. The insect was of the length of a pin. 

2. He is worthy your confidence. 

Worthy is an adjective, and so can not connect the noun confi- 
dence to the rest of the sentence. (Confidence is not used adverb- 
ially, for it does not show the measure of worth.) 

Corrected — He is ivorthy of your confidence. 

Rule IV. — Do not omit prepositions except in those 
phrases sanctioned by good usage. 

Remark. — There are certain idioms in which usage has long omitted the 
preposition, as after like and near ; thus, 

He went home {not, He went to his home), 
and other cases already raentioned, 



186 PREPOSITIONS. 

Rule F.— Do not use the preposition like instead of as, or 
as if, to introduce a clause; thus, 

He acts as if he were sick, not He acts UJce he was sick. 

Note to Teacher. — This error is so gross and so common as to demand 
an earnest effort to eradicate it. 



Lessoji /73, 

Application of the last three Rules. 
Exercise : 

Correct the following sentences: 

1. Napoleon was banished Europe by the allied powers. 2. At Santa 
Cruz is a good place to get sea moss. 3. My uncle has bought for me a 
horse and a phaeton, and the horse is nearly like to my cousin's. 4. 
There is a tree at Felton of two hundred feet high. 5. Such actions are 
unworthy the name of good manners. 6. He handed to her a beautiful 
bouquet. 7. The board asked of me several hard questions. 8, Fred- 
erick left home for to make his fortune. 9. From hence he drove to 
Glasgow. 10. To what one are you going to give that medal to? 11. 
Nathan stood quite near to her when he fired the gun. 12. Wait a little 
while before trying of that plan. L3. It looks like it was going to rain. 
14. That plum is the size of an eg^. 15. His farm is the south side of 
the river. 16. I can't do it like she did. 17. We found him engaged in 
clearing of his farm. 18. It seems like I can never learn this lesson. 
19. Where is your book at? 20. I did it like he did. 21. It seem^s like 
we must give it up entirely. 22. They saw him a trying to land at the 
point. 

Note. — A is a 'preposition in such constructions as a trying, a hunting, 
etc., but it is unnecessary in the last sentence, as the verbal trying is the attri- 
bute of the object Mm, and does not need a connecting word. 



Jyesson /74^^ 

Application of Rules for Prepositions. 

Exercise: 

Correct the following sentences (three are now correct) : 

[Direction: Change the first seven sentences, where necessary, 
lDut retain the position of the objective pronoun.] 



CORRECTION OF ERRORS. 187 

1. I will give to her a book. 2. He will forward to you your parcel. 
3. He purchased for me a horse. 4. I threw to the monkey an apple. 
5. My friend has procured for me a situation. G. I promised I would 
write her a letter every week. 7. You should have told him the truth. 

[Direction : Transpose each of the above seven sentences, placing 
the objective pronoun after the object complement.] 

8. This country abounds in swamps. 9. I will not confide on you. 10. 
We went on yesterday. 11. I sympathize heartily for you. 12. She sat 
near to the tree. 13. That crab-apple is the size of a large peach. 14. 
Mrs. B. has naturallj'- quite a taste of art. 15. Such men are unworthy 
wives. 10. What use are such things to her? 17. He was exiled the 
state. 18. There is not much hope in attempting of it. 19. The Queen's 
message was received with a long preamble in dead silence. 20. We 
sailed into a little bay down the river along the coast. 



188 INTERJECTIONS. 

CHAPTER VIII. 
INTERJECTIONS. 

J^esso?i 7'75. 

Observe the it-alicized words in the following sentences: 

1. Hurrah, hurrah! a single field hath turned the chance of war. 2. 

Alack, alack! 'tis wonder that thy life and wits had not concluded all. 

3. Ha! who comes here? 4. Bravo, little one, well done! 5. Ha, ha, ha! 

who would have thought it? 6. Ah me! I am forlorn. 

These words and many others like them are used to express 
strong or sudden emotion, and as they have no grammatical con- 
nection with the rest of the sentence, they are called exclamations 
or interjections. They express (1) joy, (2) grief, (3) surprise, (4) 
approval, (5) merriment; and other emotions. 

Rule I. — Interjections have no grammatical connection 
with the rest of the sentence. They should generally be set 
off from it by the exclamation point. 

Remarks. — Other parts of speech frequently become interjections when 
uttered with emotion. The frequent use of interjections indicates thought- 
lessness, rather than feeling, and should he avoided. 

Rule II. — Use interjections adapted to the emotions 
expressed. 

Rule III. — The word 0, should always be a capital. 

Remark. — is used by many writers chiefly in direct address, and has no 
point between it a7id the noun; as, 

mother, forgive me ! 
Oh expresses sudden or strong pain, surprise, fear, etc.; as, 
Oh ! oh ! I am bitten ! 

Exercises : 

Make the following correct in all respects: 

1. Alas i am forsaken. 2. Oh for the balmy breath of spring. 3. Ah 
thou unlucky one. 4. Hark i hear their footsteps aloug the bank of the 
river. 5. Avauntthis way. 6. Heigh-ho i am delighted. 7. Out of the 
depths do I cry unto thee o Lord. 8. Ha ha I am undone. 

Caution. — Avoid the use of such expressions as. 

Goodness ! Gracious me ! My goodness ! Mercy on us ! Good 
heavens! etc 



VERBS AND VERBALS -AUXILIARIES. 189 

CHAPTER IX. 
Verbs and Verbals. 

Zesso?i /7G, 

In Part I. you learned the following facts : 

1. A verb asserts (states, asks, or commands). 

2. A verbal is derived from a verb, but it differs in that it does not 
assert. It simply assumes what, as a verb, it would assert. 

3. Complete verbs and verbals do not need anything besides them- 
selves and their subjects to make good sense. 

4. Incomplete verbs and verbals require either attribute or object 
complements to make good sense. 

Eeview all that is said about verbs and verbals in Part I. 
Examine the following sentences : 

1. I draw. 2. I drew. 3. I am drawing. 4, I have drawn. 

See which of the four forms below you can insert instead of the 
italicized part of the verb in 1 ; in 2 ; in 3 ; in 4 : 



First form. 


Second form. 


Third form. 


Fourth form. 


Do, 


did, 


doing, 


done. 


Go, 


went. 


going. 


gone. 


Talk, 


talked, 


talking, 


talked. 


Eat, 


ate, 


eating, 


eaten. 



Drive, drove, driving, driven. 

Notice which of the forms of draw already given is in each of the 
following : 

Will drau'. Can draw. Should draw. Had drawn. Has drawn. To 
draw. To have drawn. To be drawing. Having drawn. Having been 
drawn. ■ Shall have been drawn. Can be drawn. To have been drawn. 
Could have been drawn. 

Here are fourteen different verbs and verbals, and still more 
might be given, each of which makes use of one of the four princi- 
pal forms of draw given at first. 

These four forms are, therefore, called the Principal 
Parts, hecause from them all the other forms are derived. 



190 VERBS AND VERBALS. 

Exercise : 

See how many different forms you can make from the 
four Principal Parts of do, go^ talk, eat^ and drive. 

The Principal Parts are called: 

First, present, or root, form; 
Second, o^ past, ioYVd] 
Third, or imperfect, form; 
Fourth^ or perfect, form. 

Note. — The root form can always he obtained by dropping the suffix ing 
from, the third form; as, draw + ing, go + ing, do + ing, eat + ing. 



Ijesso?i /77' 

Auxiliaries. 

In the following expressions, notice which forms can be used 
entirely alone to assert, and which need some other word or words 
to help them in making the assertion : 

They draw. They drew. They will draw. They can draw. They are 
drawing. They were drawing. They can be drawing. They have drawn. 
They had drawn. It is drawn. It can he drawn. We shall he drawing. 

The words that accompany any of the principal parts to 
help assert, are called helpers, or auxiliaries. 

Rules. 

I. The first form may be used to assert either alone or 
with helpers; as, 

I go. I will go. "We did go. We draw. We can draw. 

IL The second form should never be used with a helper. 

III. The third form, when it asserts, must be used with 
some form of the verb he. 

IV. The fourth form, when it asserts, is used only with 
some form of have or he. 

Remarks. — 1. The third and fourth forms used without auxiliaries are 
verbals; as, 

The child drawing that picture is but six years old. The picture 
drawn by him is very fine. 



STRONG AND WEAK VERBS. 191 

2. The verbs commonly called auxiliaries are may, can, must, shall, 
will, be, do, and have, with tlieir variations. Each auxiliary will be dis- 
cussed again in its proper place. 

3. Do, be, have, and "Will may be used as principal verbs also; 
Do, when it means to perform ; as, 

We must do our duty ; 

Be, when it means to exist or when it joins an attribute to its subject; as, 

I am glad that 1 am; 

Have, ivh^n it indicates to possess ; as, 

We must have food , 

Will, when it means to resolve ; as, 

We should will to do right. 

Zesso?i /78, 

Strong and Weak Verbs. 

Verbs are classified, according to the way the second and 
ihe fourth forms are made, into v^eal (or regular) verbs and 
strong (or irregular) verbs. 

The strong verbs are those that make the second and the 
fourth forms by changes within themselves; as, draw, drew, 
drawn; go, went, gone. 

The weak verbs are those that add d or ed to make the 
second and the fom'th forms; as, walk, icalked, ivalked; like, 
liked, liked. 

A few verbs have both the weak and the strong form; as, 
awake, awoke or awaked. The strong form is usually prefer- 
able. 

Remarks. — 1. Verbs forming any of their principal parts in more than 
one vay, are called redundant verbs; as, (1) hang, (2) hung or hanged, 
(3) hanging, (4) hung or hanged. {See list of strong verbs.) 

2. Verbs lacking any of the principal parts are called defective verbs; as, 
(i) may, (2) might, {3) , (4) , (wanting.) (See list of strong verbs.) 



J^esso7i //79, 

Direction. — Study the following list of strong verbs until you 
can readily give the four forms of any verb in the list, and can use 
each form in a good oral sentence. Take especial care in using 
those marked N. B. Practice until you can make these sentences 
rapidly. 



192 



VERBS AND VERBALS. 



[To the Teacher.— Drill upon the correct use of strong verbs is the 
most important part of the subject of verbs. Train the memory here 
in the rapid application of the different forms.] 



Present. 


Past. 


Abide, 


abode, 


Awake, 


("awoke, 
{awaked. 


Be, or am 


L, was, 


Bear, {to carry) \^^^^' 
' {bare. 


Bear, (to 


bring (hore, 
{bare. 


forth) 


Beat, 


beat. 


Begin, 


began, 


Bend, 


[bent, 
{bended. 


Bereave, 


Tbereft, 
{bereaved, 


Beseech, 


besought, 


Bet, 


(bet, 
{betted, 


Bid, 


bade, bid, 


Bind, 


bound, 


Bite, 


bit. 


Bleed, 


bled, 


Blend, 


(blent, 
{blended. 


Bless, 


[blest, 
{blessed, 


Blow, 


blew, 


Break, 


broke, 


Breed, 


bred, 


Bring, 


brought, 


Build, 


(build, 
{builded, 


Burn, 


[burnt, 
\burned. 


Burst, 


burst. 


Buy, 


bought, 



List of strong (or irregular) verbs. 

Imp. Part. 

abiding, 

awaking, 

being, 

bearing, 



bearing, 

beating, 
beginning, 

bending, 

bereaving, 

beseeching, 

betting, 

bidding, 
binding, 
biting, 
bleeding, 

blending, 

blessing, 

blowing, 
breaking, 
breeding, 
bringing, 

building, 

burning, 

bursting, 
buying. 



Perfect Part. 

abode, 
[awoke. 
{awaked. 

been. 

J borne. 

(borne. 

(born. 

beaten. 

begun, 
[bent. 
{bended. 
[bereft. 
{bereaved. 

besought, 
[bet. 
{betted. 

bidden, bid. 

bound. 

bitten, bit. 

bled. ' 
(blent. 
{blended. 
(blest. 
{blessed. 

blown. 

broken. 

bred. 

brought, 
(built. 
{builded. 
[burnt. 
{burned. 

burst. 

bought. 



I 



LIST OF STRONG VERBS 



198 



Present. 


Past. 


Imp. Part. 


Perfect Part, 


Can, 
Cast, 


could, 

cast, 






casting, 


cast. 


Catch, 


caught, 


catching. 


caught. 


Chide, 


chid, 


chiding. 


[chidden, 
tchid. 


Choose, 


chose, 


choosing, 


chosen. 


Cleave, (weak) cleaved, 


cleaving. 


cleaved. 


(to adhere) 








Cleave, 
[to split) 


[clove, 
(cleft, . 


cleaving. 


[cloven, 
tcleft. 


Cling, 


clung. 


clinging, 


clung. 


Clothe, 


[clad, 
{clothed, 


clothing, 


clad. 
clothed. 


(Be) Come, 


came. 


coming, 


come. 


Cost, 


cost, 


costing. 


cost. 


Creep, 


crept. 


creeping. 


crept. 


Crow, 


crew, 
crowed, 


crowing. 


crowed. 


Cut, 


cut, 


cutting, 


cut. 


Dare, (toans.) If ^^^' 
1 dared. 


daring. 


dared. 


Dare, [trans.) 


dared, 


daring. 


dared. 


Deal, 


dealt. 


dealing. 


dealt. 


Dig, 


fdug, 
digged, 


digging, 


(dug. 
{digged. 


Do, 


did. 


doing, 


done. 


Draw, 


drew, 


drawing, 


drawn. 


Dream, 


[dreamt, 
{dreamed. 


dreaming, 


[dreamt. 

{dreamed. 


Dress, 


[drest, 
{dressed, 


dressing. 


[drest. 
{dressed. 


Drink, 


drank. 


drinking, 


[drunk, 
(drank. 


Drive, 


drove. 


driving, 


driven. 


Dwell, 


/dwelt, 
{divelled. 


dwelling. 


dwelt. 
dwelled. 






Eat, 


ate, 


eating. 


eaten. 


(Be) Fall, 


fell. 


falling. 


fallen. 


Feed, 


fed, 


feeding. 


fed. 


13-G 









194 



VERBS AND VERBALS. 



Present. 

Feel, 

Fight, 

Find, 

Flee, 
Fling, 

Fly, 

Forsake, 
Forbear, 
Freeze, 

(For)Get, 
Gild, 

Gird, 

(For)Give, 
Go, 

(En) Grave, 

Grind, 
Grow, 

Hang, 



Past, 
felt, 
fought, 
found, 
fled, 
flung, 
flew, 
forsook, 
forbore, 
froze, 

Got, 

(gilt, 

\gilded, 

(girt, 

{girded, 
gave, 
went, 

graved, 

ground, 
grew, 
[hung, 
[hanged, 
had, 



Have, 

{auxiliary) 
Have, {topossess) had. 



Hear, 
Heave, 

Hew, 



heard, 
(hove, 

\heaved, 

hewed. 



Hide, 
Hit, 

(Be) Hold, 
Hurt, 
Keep, 

Kneel, 
Knit, 



Imp. Part. 

feeling, 

fighting, 

finding, 

fleeing, 

flinging, 

flying, 

forsaking, 

forbearing, 

freezing, 

getting, 
gilding, 

girding, 

giving, 
going, 

graving, 

grinding, 
growing, 

hanging, 
having, 

having, 
hearing, 

heaving, 
hewing, 



hiding, 

hitting, 

holding, 

hurting, 

keeping, 

kneeling. 



Perfect Part. 

felt. 

fought. 

found. 

fled. 

flung. 

flown. 

forsaken. 

forborne. 

frozen. 
(got. 
(gotten, 
jgilt. 
{gilded. 
(girt. 
{girded. 

given. 

gone, 
(graven. 
[graved. 

ground. 

grown, 
("hung. 
{hanged. 



hid, 

hit, 

held, 

hurt, 

kept, 
fknelt, 
{kneeled, 

i^^^^' knitting, 

{knitted, 

THote.— Compare the forms and meaning of flee, fly, flow ; got, have 
huns and hanged. 



had. 
heard. 

heaved. 

(hewn. 
{hewed. 

hidden, 

hit. 

held. 

hurt. 

kept, 
(knelt. 
{kneeled. 
(knit. 
1 knitted. 



hid. 



LIST OF STRONG VERBS. 



195 



Present. 


Past. 


Imp. Part. 


Perfect Part, 


Know, 


knew. 


knowing. 


known. 


Lade, (/ 


'0 load) laded. 


lading, 


laded. 


Lay, (to 


' place) laid. 


laying, 


laid. 


Lead, 


led, 


leading. 


led. 


Lean, 


(leant, 
[leaned, 


leaning. 


(leant. 
[leaned. 


Leap, 


rieapt, 
[leaped, 


leaping, 


(leapt. 
[leaped. 


Learn, 


(learnt, 
[learned 


learning. 


(learnt. 
[learned. 


Leave, 


left, 


leaving, 


left. 


Lend, 


lent, 


lending. 


lent. 


Let, 


let. 


letting. 


let. 


Lie, {to 'i 


recline) lav. 


lying, 


lain. 


Light, 


(lit, 
[lighted, 


lighting. 


(lit. 
[lighted. 


Lose, 


lost. 


losing. 


lost. 


Make, 


made, 


making. 


made. 


May, 


might. 










Mean, 


meant. 


meaning. 


meant. 


Meet, 


met, 


meeting. 


met. 


Mow, 


mowed. 


mowing. 


(mown. 

[moived. 


Must, 
Ought, 




















Pass, 


passed, 


passing, 


(past. 
[passed. 


Piiy, 


paid. 


paying, 


paid. 


Pen, (^01 


inclose) i'^^''^' 

[penned, 


penning. 


(pent. 
[penned. 


Put, 


put. 


putting. 


put. 


Quit, 


(quit, 
[quitted, 
quoth. 


quitting. 


quit. 
quitted. 










[nearly obsolete) 




Rap, 


rapped. 


rapping. 


rapped. 


Read, 


read. 


reading. 


read. 


Rend, 


(rent. 


rending. 


Trent. 




[rended. 




[rended. 



^ote.— Compare lie, lay ; lose, loose. 



196 



VERBS AND VERBALS. 



Present. 


Past. 


Imp. Part. 


Perfect Part. 


Rid, 


rid, 


ridding, 


rid. 


Ride, 


rode. 


riding, 


ridden. 


Ring, 


rang. 


ringing. 


rung. 


(A)Rise, 


rose, 


rising, 


risen. 


{Intransitiv 


e) 






Rive, 


rived, 


riving, 


(riven. 
\rived. 


Run, 


ran. 


running. 


run. 


Saw, 


sawed, 


sawing. 


fsawn. 
\sawed. 


Say, 


said. 


saying. 


said. 


See, 


Baw, 


seeing. 


seen. 


Seek, 


sought. 


seeking. 


sought. 


Seethe, 


seethed, 


seething. 


(sodden. 
{seethed. 


Sell, 


sold, 


selling. 


sold. 


Send, 


sent. 


sending, 


sent. 


*CBe) Set, 


set. 


setting. 


set. 


Shake, 


shook, 


shaking. 


shaken. 


Shall, 
Shape, 


should, 
shaped. 






shaping, 


f shapen. 
{shaped. 


Shave, 


shaved, 


shaving. 


J shaven. 
\shaved. 


Shear, 


sheared. 


shearing. 


[shorn. 
{sheared. 


Shed, 


shed. 


shedding, 


shed. 


Shine, 


[shone, 
\shined, 


shining. 


[shone. 
{shined. 


Shoe, 


shod. 


shoeing, 


shod. 


Shoot, 


shot. 


shooting. 


shot. 


Show, 


showed, 


showing. 


[shown. 
{showed. 


Shred, 


shred, 


shredding, 


shred. 


Shrink, 


shrank. 


shrinking, 


[shrunk, 
(shrunken. 








Shut, 


shut, 


shutting, 


shut. 



*Set is properly transitive, meaning to place something, but it also 
means to pass across space; as, The moon sets (appears to set). He set 
out for town. The wind set in from the west. The tide set in, etc. 



LIST OF STRONG VERBS. 



197 



Present. 


Past. 


Imp. Part. 


Perfect Part. 


Sing, 


sang. 


singing, 


sung. 


Sink, 


sank. 


sinking. 


sunk. 


Sit, (posture) 


sat. 


sitting, 


sat. 


Slay, 


slew, 


slaying, 


slain. 


Sleep, 


slept, 


sleeping, 


slept. 


SUde, 


sHd, 


sliding. 


[slidden. 
tslid. 


SUng, 


slung. 


slinging. 


slung. 


Slink, 


slunk, 


slinking, 


slunk. 


SUt, 


jsHt, 
\slitted, 


slitting, 


fslit. 
[slitted. 


SmeU, 


[smelt, 
{smelled, 


smelling, 


(smelt. 
[smelled. 






Smite, 


smote, 


smiting. 


smitten. 


Sow, 


sowed, 


sowing. 


(sown. 
[solved. 


Speak, 


spoke. 


speaking. 


spoken. 


Speed, 


sped. 


speeding, 


sped. 


Spell, 


[spelt, 
[spelled, 


spelling, 


[spelt. 
[spelled. 


Spend, 


spent. 


spending. 


spent. 


Spill, 


(spilt, 
{spilled, 


spilling. 


f spilt. 
[spilled. 


Spin, 


spun, 


spinning. 


spun. 


Spit, 


spit, 


spitting. 


spit. 


SpUt, 


split, 


splitting, 


split. 


SpoU, 


(spoilt, 
\spoiled, 


spoiling, 


(spoilt. 
[spoiled. 


Spread, 


spread. 


spreading, 


spread. 


Spring, 


sprang, 


springing, 


sprung. 


Stand, 


stood. 


standing, 


stood. 


Stave, 


[stove, 
[staved, 


staving. 


(stove. 
[staved. 


Stay, 


[staid, 
[stayed. 


stajdng, 


(staid. 
[stayed. 


Steal, 


stole, 


stealing, 


stolen. 


Stick, 


stuck, 


sticking, 


stuck. 


Sting, 


stung, 


stinging. 


stung. 


Stink, 


stunk. 


stinking, 


stunk. 



Note. — Compare sow and sew. 



198 



VERBS AND VERBALS. 



Present. 

Stride, 

Strike, 

String, 
Strive, 

Strow, 

Swear, 

Sweat, 

Sweep, 

Swell, 

Swim, 

Swing, 

Take, 

Teach, 

Tear, 

Tell, 

Think, 

Thrive, 

Throw, 
Thrust, 

Tread, 
Wake, 

Wax, 

Wear, 

Weave, 

Weep, 

Wet, 

Will, 
Win, 
Wind, 

Work, 
Note.- 



Past. 

strode, 

struck, 

strung, 
strove, 

strowed, 

swore, 
[sweat, 
{sweated, 

swept, 

swelled, 

swam, 
swung, 
took, 
taught, 
tore, 
told, 
thought, 
[throve, 
{thrived, 
threw, 
thrust, 

trod, 

[woke, 
{waked, 
waxed, 

wore, 
wove, 
wept, 
[wet, 
{wetted, 
would, 
won, 
wound, 
[wrought, 
\worhed, 
-Compare ring a7id 



mp. Part. 


Perfect Part, 


striding, 


stridden. 


striking. 


[struck, 
(stricken. 


stringing, 


strung. 


striving, 


striven. 


strowing. 


[strown. 

{strowed. 


swearing. 


sworn. 


sweating, 


[ sweat, 
{sweated. 


sweeping, 


swept. 


swelling. 


[ swollen. 
{stvelled. 


swimming, 


swum. 


swinging, 


swung. 


taking, 


taken. 


teaching, 


taught. 


tearing, 


torn. 


telling, 


told. 


thinking, 


thought. 


thriving. 


[thriven. 
{thrived. 


throwing. 


thrown. 


thrusting. 


thrust. 


treading. 


(trod, 
(trodden. 


waking, 


waked. 


waxing. 


[waxen. 
{waxed. 


wearing. 


worn. 


weaving, 


woven. 


weeping. 


wept. 


wetting. 


[wet. 
{wetted. 



wmnmg, 
winding, 

working, 



wring 



won. 

wound. 
[ wrought. 
{worked. 
learn and teach. 





STRONG 


AND WEAK VERBS. 


Present. 


Past. 


Imp. Part. Perfect Part, 


Wring, 


\\Tung, 


wringing, wrung. 


Write, 


wrote, 


writing, written. 



199 



Improper Use of Weak and Strong Verbs. 

Exercise : 

Notice first the sense intended; then, the form or word 

chosen, and correct the sentence: 

1. I have saw it. 2. 1 seen it. 3. I see it yesterday. 4. You done 
well. 5. Go and lay down, Fido. 6. Where did you lie your papers? 
7. I sot the porcelain bowl carefullj'^ away. 8. Where was he setting 
when you rung the bell? 9. Has the fire alarm bell rang? 10. She 
vvrang her hands and moaned. 11. Father has came; now he will learn 
us how to do it. 12. My uncle has got himself a new carriage, and it 
has got two seats. 13. A hot north wind blowed all day. 14. The con- 
cert must have began before you come. 15. You should have came 
earlier. 16. We had ate a few cherries. 17. The creek having over- 
flown its banks, we lay some boards down to walk on. 18. Tom throwed 
the ball too high. 19. Are the horses shoed ? 20. Not a word, was spoke. 
21. His nurse was learning him to manage his tricycle. 22. Miss A. has 
teached her before. 23. The enemy became disheartened and flew. 24. 
The swallows have flew away. 25. The dog raised up and howled. 2G. 
She knowed nothing about driving, and so she run the wheel against 
the gate-post. 27. The river is raising. 

Composition Exercises: 

a. Fill the blanks with the correct form of sit, set, or seat: 

1. Did j'ou three in a seat? 2. The usher me here. 3. 

Where were you before? 4. We have things in order. 5. 

He out for town. 6. A strong wind in from the west. 7. 

I here last term. 8. They had there an hour. 9. Where 

were they ? 

b. Fill the blanks with correct forms of lie (to recline) 

or lay (to place any thing): 

1. The Romans used to down to eat. 2. The lizard in 

the sun. 3. the guitar upon the piano. 4. Where did he 

his head? 5. The skeleton had evidently there a long time. H. 

The dog was on the porch. 7. Has the corner stone been ? 

8. They were bricks for a new walk. 



200 v:erbs and verbals. 

c. AVrite a short story about a lost child, and try to weave 
into the story all the forms of sit, set, seat^ lie, and lay. 

Zesso?z /8^. 

What Verbs Assert and What Verbals Assume. 

The horse eats hay, runs, and Iciclis. (Action asserted) 
The fish dar^n^ upward caught a fly. (Action assumed in dart- 
ing, and asserted in caught) 

As surely as I know that I am, I know that God is. (Existence 
asserted) 

The horse is strong.) 

They are happy. |I^elation asserted. 

Being ill, the child could 1 
not accompany us. \ Relation assumed. 

We knew him to he ill. j 

From the above examples it will be seen that verbs may 
assert and verbals assume action, being (existence), or a 
relation between an attribute and the word to which the 
attribute belongs. By far the greater number, however, 
assert or assume action. 

Remaek. — The actions asserted hy verbs vary greatly in the amount of 
activity asserted; as 

He runs. He sits. 

In the first the action is violent; in the second, hardly perceptible. Still, 
it is better to call all verbs in this sense, active, except the verb to be in its 
various forms. To be, as it asserts merely existence, is commonly called a 
neuter verb. The verbs become, seems, appear, etc., are very closely allied 
to the verb to be, but differ enough to make it best to call them all active 
verbs. 

Mention ten different actions, five of which you can perform 
yourself. 

If you perform the act of rising or of walking, and then the act 
of tearing or of breaking, you will notice a remarkable difference 
between them. You ca,n not tear or break without having an object 
to be torn or broken, and the word naming this thing is the object 
of the verb. But when you walk, rise, or look, no object is required 
to complete the sense. 



TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE. 201 

Here you see another classification of verbs — those 
requiring an object and those which do not require an object. 
The former are called transitive verbs; the latter intransi- 
tive verbs. 

Remarks. — 1. Transitive means passing over, and these verbs are so 
called because the action passes over to an object. 

2. Some hitransltlve verbs become transitive when followed by an object 
derived from the verb; as, He ran a race. He lived a happy life. He 
sleeps the sleep of the just. This is sometimes called the cognate object. 

3. Other intransitive verbs become transitive in another sense. In the 
sentence, He runs, the verb runs is intransitive, but in the sentence, He runs 
the engine, runs is transitive. 

4- The object is not always expressed; it maybe understood. If a verb 
may have an object, it is transitive. If it takes an object in any sense, how- 
ever restricted, as in the examples above, it is in tliat sense a transitive verb. 

5. In the sentences I walk, I look, you observe that the sense is co)nplete, 
that is, no object is required. If I say I walk rapidly, I look carefully, an 
adverbial modifier is iised, but not an object. In the sentence, He came an 
enemy and returned a friend, came and returned are intransitive, and 
they are each followed by an attribute used as identical with the subject. 
This construction is somewhat rare. 

Exercise : 

Examine the following verbs and see how many and 
which of them may take objects, and are therefore transi- 
tive verbs: 

Note.— Do 7iot mistake an adverb for an object; the former tells how, 
where, when, or why ; the latter tells what. 

Bite, see, come, e.xpect, sigh, go, hammer, fire, breathe, hope, look, 
icish, forsake, fence, walk, return, retire, subscribe, deliver, grow, 
hear, ring, cough, blow, rap, lean, have, creep, burst, abide. 



Zesson 782, 

Exercises: 

a. Write sentences containing six examples of transitive 
verbs with the object of the action named. 

b. Six transitive, but having the object understood, not 
expressed. 

c. Six intransitive verbs expressing action. 

d. Six that may have an object made from the verb. 



202 VERBS AND VERBALS. 

e. Six that are usually intransitive, but may, in a certain 
sense, become transitive. 



Zesso7t /SS. 

Forms of Verbs. 

Both transitive and intransitive verbs may have more 
than one form. 

Examine the verbs in the following : 

(A) (B) 

I talk. I am talking. 

I have talked. I have been talking. 

I rise. I am rising. 

I rose. I was rising. 

The (A) form is called the Simple form ; the (B) form is called the 
Progressive form, because it denotes that the act is in progress. 

Observe that the progressive form consists of some form 
of be and the third form of the verb. 

Change the following to the progressive form: 

They cry. He went. You must write. I can ride. You might 
have thought. 

Remark. — To emphasize a verb having no auxiliaries, use do with the first 
form to express a present event, and did with the first form to express a past 
event; as^lvrrite, I wrote. Emphasized: lAo^xite. I did write. This 
is called the Emphatic form. Do and did are not used elsewhere, because all 
other verbs can be made emphatic by emphasizing an auxiliary already used. 

Formation of Transitive Verbs and Verbals. 

Tell why the following words are transitive : 
Sawed, kill, bit, cutting, seeing, to do, to eat. 

Notice the difference in the following constructions : 

(a) Men kill the lower animals. 

(b) The lower animals are killed by men. 
(a) A gnat bit his horse. 

(Jo) His horse was bitten by a gnat. 

(a) Every animal eats something. 

(b) Something is eaten by every animal. 

In each pair of sentences, (b) tells the same thing as (a). But 
when the actor is to be made prominent, the (a) form is used ; and 



F0R3fS OF VERBS. 203 

when the recipient of the action is to be made prominent, tlie (b) 
form is used. 

The (a) form is the active form. 

The (b) form is the passive form. 

Examine closely the above sentences, and notice in each whether 
the subject names the actor or the recipient of the action. Notice 
which is named by the object of the preposition hy in the passive 
form. Compare the form of the italicized words in each pair. 

Remark. — In the passive form, the prepositional phrase showing agency 
is frequently omitted; as, The hotel was set on fire, [by somebody] 

Conclusion: In changing from the active to the passive 
form, the object complement of the active becomes the sub- 
ject of the passive, and the subject of the active, if retained, 
becomes the object of the preposition by. In this change 
the fourth form of the transitive verb is used after some 
form of the verb be. 

Verbals may be changed in the same manner: in the 
active form the assumed subject names the actor ; in the 
passive form it names the recipient ; thus, 

Active : The distracted parents, having found their child, took him 
home. 

Passive : The child, having been found bj' his distracted parents, was 
taken home. 

Active: The captain ordered the sailors to lower the mainsail. 

Passive : The captain ordered the mainsail to he lowered hy the 
sailors. 

Remark. — Some grammarians reject the term ^^ passive form^'' regarding 
it merely as a combination of the copula be and an attribute consisting of 
the fourth for m of the verb; thus, 



"Work , is \ done 



\^ many 



Jjesson ^81., 

Exercise : 

Tell the form of each of the transitive verbs or verbals in 
the following, and change to the opposite form: 



204 VERBS AND VERBALS. 

(Notice also the changes in form in the dechnable pronouns.) 

1. She draws pictures. 2. Having written a letter to his parents, in 
which he confessed his errors, his spirits rose. 3. A scandal-monger 
should be avoided by every one. 4. My task having been accomplished, 
I sat down to rest. 5. They were ashamed to be seen there by anybody. 

6. My friend told me that the boy had been employed by her for a year. 

7. Having returned the book to its place, I left the room. 8. Not a word 
was spoken by anj'- one present. 9. Sam's mother, having been accom- 
panied to the train by her son, left town well pleased with her visit. 10. 
I am determined to find help before evening. 

When a transitive verb, in the active form, having an 
object complement and an attributive object, is changed to 
the passive form, the attribute of the object becomes the 
attribute complement relating to the subject; thus, 

(a) They called her Fairy-belle. 
(Jo) She was called Fairy-helle. 

(a) They knew him to be insane. 

(b) He was known to be insane. 



(The lines before the 
phrase and before insane 
slant toward the subject, 
to which each belongs.) 



She 


, was 


1 called 


A. 


Diagrams. 
Fairy-belle 


He 


, was 


known 


A. 


^ 



Jyesson /So, 

Notes on Idiomatic Constructions. 

I. (a) They gave me flowers. (The preposition to unex- 
pressed) 

(b) Flowers were given to me. [by them] (True passive) 

(c) I was giYen flowers. (Idiomatic object) 

Diagram. 

I , was given [flowers] (Place the idiomatic object in brack- 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^"" ets ; do not put a vertical line before it.) 

This construction arises from taking the object of the preposition 



IDIOMATIC CONSTRUCTIONS. 205 

to, in the active, for the subject of the passive, leaving, in the pred- 
icate of the passive, the true object complement of the active. This 
construction is condemned by some grammarians, but seems author- 
ized by present usage, particularly to preserve euphony when the 
true object of the active form is long; as, 

(a) They told him that he ivould find his mother there. 
Awkward: (b) That he xcould find his mother there was told to him. 
Better : (c ) He ^tus told that he ivould find his mother there. (Idiomatic 
object) 

Exercise : 

Change to the passive, using the italicized words for the 
subject, and diagram: 

1. Webb asked her if she knew anything about the matter. 

2. The directors informed 3Ir. Ball that his services were no longer 
needed. 

II. Sometimes the object of a preposition (after the object 
complement) is taken for the subject in the passive, leaving 
the object complement and preposition as part of the idiom. 

(a) They took care of her. 

(b) Care was taken of her. (True passive) 

(c) She luas taken care of. (Idiomatic passive) 



She , was taken care of 



Diagram. 

(Do not try to separate the parts of an 
idiom.) 



III. Again, the object of a preposition after an intransi- 
tive verb is sometimes changed to the subject of an idio- 
matic passive; as, 

(a) They laughed at her. 

(b) She was laughed at. (Was ridiculed) 

Exercises : 

a. Change the following to the passive in the way that 
will make the most euphonious sentences: 

1. People should not make fun of unfortunate children, 

2. The neighbors often spoke of Harvey's bad habits. 



206 VERBS AND VERBALS. 

b. Make two original sentences under each of the above 
three idiomatic constructions. 

IV. When the fourth form of an intransitive verb is used 
after is; as, Spring is come, It is flown, the verb or verbal 
should be treated as an adjective. The meaning, of course, 
is, Spring has come, or Spring is It ere ; It has flown, or It is 
away. 

V. All the idiomatic constructions may be given to verb- 
als, as well as to verbs; thus, 

Idiomatic object : The man having been given fair warning. 

Idiomatic passive : This matter having been spoken 0/ before. 

Idiomatic passive ; It was wrong for this matter to be spoken of then. 

Idiomatic passive : The child having been taken care of, the doctor 
rode off. 

Idiomatic use of verb to be: The bird being flown, we gave up the 
pursuit. 

J^essoii 786, 

Verbs and Verbals — Modifications. 
Tense. 
Fill each blank with an appropriate adverb showing when. 

1. she laughs. 2. She is laughing . 3. She laughed . 

4. She was laughing . 5. I shall laugh . 6. She will laugh . 

How could you tell what adverb to choose? 

Now fill the following blanks with appropriate forms of the verb 
go or attend: 



1. He now. 


2. He — 


— school this term, 


3. He yesterday. 


4. He — 


last term. 


5. She — - soon. 


6. She - 


next term. 



Thus you see that the form of the verb and the idea of time 
shown by the rest of the sentence must correspond. 

This variation in the form of the verb to express the 
time of the being, action, or state, is called Tense, from 
tempus--=time. 



MODIFICATIONS. 207 

You notice here but three divisions of time, the past, the present, 
and the future , as, 

I went. I go. I shall go. 

Real present time is but a point, moving forward, converting 
future into past. Tlie speaker may assume any length he pleases to 
the period called the present, provided it includes the real present; as, 

To-day we are happy. This century is a period of great advancement. 

AVe may say : 

1. I study my lessons now, — this term, — during this year. (Present) 

2. I studied my lessons yesterday,— or any time closing before the 
present. (Past) 

3. I shall study my lessons to-morrow, — or any time in advance of the 
present. (Future) 

4. I have (now) studied my lessons. (Present) 

5. I had (5'esterday) studied my lessons. (Past) 

6. I shall have (to-morrow) studied my lessons. (Future) 

In the last three, notice that the act is completed, or perfected, 
each time. In 4, perfected in the present; in 5, perfected in the 
past; in 6, perfected in the future. These tenses are therefore 
called the perfect tenses, viz. : (4) present perfect, (5) past perfect, 
(6) future perfect. 

Exercise : 

With the pronoun he, use the following verbs in the six 
tenses: 

Run, come, chose, shoot. 



Zesso7i /87, 

Modification of Verbs and Verbals. 
Manner of Asserting. 

Notice how the assertions are made by the following groups of 
italicized words : 

1. I am talking, \ 

Harry talked, h Assert a fact. 
They have talked, ) 

Though Harry is talking, he is not noisy. (Admits or concedes a 
supposition to be a fact) 



208 VERBS AND VERBALS. 

Assert by means of the auxiliary : 

2. Harry may talk. (Possibility or permission) 
Harry can talk. (Power) 

Harry should talk. (Duty) 

Harry must talk. (Obligation or necessity) 

Harry said, "I will talk." (Determination or promise) 

3. If it be possible, my father will come. ) 

It is necessary that she he industrious. [ ^ ^uiStai'Sy ^^'"''^ '''' 

It is important that you be attentive. ) 

If he were more studious, he would be better. (A mere supposi- 
tion implying the contrary) 

1 wish that I were more studious. I wish that he were more stu- 
dious. (A mere wish implying the contrary) 

4. Go at once. (Command) 
Do let me. (Entreaty) 

Be careful or j'ou will fall. (Exhortation) 

Come when you please. (Permission in the form of a command) 

This difference in the manner oi asserting is called Mode, 
from modus, manner. 

(a) Verbs asserting a fact, as in Group 1, are in the 
Indicative Mode. 

(b) Verbs asserting, by means of an auxiliary, possibility, 
permission, power, duty, obligation, necessity, determina- 
tion, or promise, as in Group 2, are in the Potential Mode. 

(c) Verbs in a subordinate clause, asserting a future con- 
tingency, a mere supposition, or a mere wish, without vary- 
ing their form to agree with the subject, as in Group 3, are 
in the Subjunctive Mode. 

(d) Verbs asserting a command, an entreaty, an exhor- 
tation, or a permission in the form of a command, as in 
Group 4, are in the Imperative Mode. 

Remark. — Both the Indicative and Potential Modes may be used inter- 
rogatively. 

Exercise : 

Make a definition of the Indicative Mode in accordance 
with the preceding explanations. Give six examples. 



MODES AND TENSES. 209 

Ijesso?i /88^ 

Modes and Tenses. 

Indicative Mode. 

[To the Teacher.— By turning to the tables of conjugation the pupil 
will find abundant examples from which to deduce the following prin- 
ciples.] 

The Indicative Mode has six tenses, the time indicated 
corresponding more nearly to the name of the tense, than 
in any other mode. 

There are three time tenses; i. e.^ those that show merely 
the time of the being, action, or state, without regard to 
completion; and three perfect tenses; i. e.. those that show 
the completion of the being, action, or state at some definite 
point in the present, the past, or the future. 

The simple Present Indicative expresses a present event, 
or that which is true at all times. It uses the root form of 
the verb, with changes to agree with the subject in the sec- 
ond and third persons singular; as, 

I see, Thou seest, He sees ; 

We see, You see, They see. 

The simple Past Indicative expresses a past event. It 
uses the second form of the verb, and changes only in the 
second person singular; as, 

I saw, Thou sawest, He saw ; 

We saw, You saw, They saw. 

The simplest Future Indicative is always compound. It 
expresses a future idea, and uses the root form of the verb 
preceded by the auxihary shall in the first person, and will 
in the second and third persons; as, 

I shall see. Thou wilt see, He will see ; 

We shall see, You will see. They will see. 

Remakks. — 1. Fiitiire ideas are often expressed in an idiomatic Present 
Indicative; as, 

He goes to Europe next month, meaning He will go. 

14-Ct 



210 VERBS AND VERBALS, 

2. Past and future events are often expressed in the Present Indicative hy 
the figure of Vision ; as, 

(Past) While Bruce sits lamenting his fate, he sees a spider patiently- 
overcoming great obstacles. 

S. The changes for person ayid numher in all modes and tenses are made 
in the auxiliary, if there is one, and in the first auxiliary, if there is more 
than 07ie. 

The simplest Present Perfect Indicative expresses the 
event as completed in the present, previous to the moment 
of speaking. It uses the auxiliary have and the fourth form 
of the verb; as, 

I have seen it frequently. 

E,icMA.RKS. — 1. Here the speakers ivholepast life is assumed as the present; 
the real present is the m,oment of speaking. The sentence means, I have seen 
it frequently in my life, previous to the moment of making this statement. 
We should not say, " I never did it yet,^'' hut, " I never have done it yet.'''' 

2. Thus it will be seen that there are three classes of auxiliaries, 
viz.: (1) Form auxiliaries, as do in the emphatic and he in the progressive 
and passive; (2) mode auxiliaries, as shall and will when they denote 
determination, and may, can, and must; (3) tense auxiliaries, as have in 
the perfect tenses, and shall and will when they denote mere futurity. 

The simplest Past Perfect Indicative shows the comple- 
tion of the event at or previous to some point mentioned in 
past time; as, 

Henry had seen the jewel before his mother sold it. 

It uses had and the fourth form. 

The simplest Future Perfect Indicative shows that an 
event is to be completed at or previous to some point of 
time mentioned in the future; as. 

He will have seen his father before we meet again. 

It uses shall have or will have (according to the person of 
the subject) with the fourth form. 

Jyesson /89. 

Composition Exercise : 

Use the verbs come, go, drive, bite, lie (to recline), and 
sit (position), in each of the tenses of the Indicative Mode. 



MODES AND TENSES. 211 

Make smooth sentences and use an adverbial modifier 
(word, phrase, or clause) showing time in each. 



Potential Mode. 
Exercise : 

Examine the explanation already given of the Potential 
Mode, and make a good definition of it, remembering that 
the power, possibility, etc., are always shown by the auxil- 
iary. 

By examining the tables of conjugation you will see that the 
Potential Mode has but four tenses : the present, the past, the pres- 
ent perfect, and the past perfect. 

Present r(a) ITe can see now. — (Present form with present idea) 
Tense. 1(b) He can see next time. — (Present form with future idea) 
r(c) He never cour.D see that. — (Past form with past idea) 
I (d) He COULD see now, if he were here. — (Past form with pres- 

X USt I , • T \ 

Tense. 1 ^"^ '^^^^ 

[ (e) He COULD see it to-morrow, if he would go. — (Past form 

L with future idea) 

Present Perfect, (f) I may have seen it often. 

Past Perfect. (g) /might have seen ti sooner. 

Conclusion. — The tenses in the potential mode have the 
same, names as the tenses in the indicative mode, but they 
may convey different ideas of time. They are named from 
the form of the first auxiliary used, and not from their 
meaning — future time being often shown by the present 
potential or the past potential. See (b) and (e) above. 

Notice that the present tense uses the present potential 
auxiliary and the root form of the verb. See (a) and (b). 

The past simply changes to the past potential auxiliary. 
See (c), (d), and (e). 

The present perfect uses the present potential auxiliary, 
with have and the fourth form of the verb. See (f ). 

The past perfect uses the past potential auxiliary, with 
have and the fourth form of the verb. See (g). 



212 VERBS AND VERBALS. 

Give the four tenses in the potential mode of / can ride; 
He may see ; He 7nnst go. (Must has no past.) 



Zessou /e9/. 

Shall and Will. 

[To the Teacher.— Perhaps in no other place in the English language 
are so many and so gross errors made as in the use of the auxiliaries 
shall and voill. Below is a condensed view of their most important uses. 
Pupils should be given much drill here.] 

1. Simple futurity or natural result. (^^^ ^ *^^^^ ^ ^^«^^ recover. 

(Indicative) \ ^^^ ^ *^^"^^' ^^^^ ^'^'^ recover. 

1(0) I think he will recover, 
('(d) 1 will write = I promise to w^ite. 

2. Determination j (e) You shaH write = I compel you to write, 
or compulsion. . . J ,1 compel him to write. 

(Potential) | (f) He s/ia/Z write= -^ Something compels him to 

L ( write. 

Rule I. — (Indicative Mode.) In general, use sliall with 
the first person, (a), and will with the second or third, (b), 
(c), to denote mere futurity or natural result. 

Rule II. — (Potential Mode.) Use will with the first per- 
son, (d), and %liall with the second or third, (e), (f), to 
denote determination or compulsion on the part of the 
speaker or some external force. 

Remark. — Will, emphatic, may be xised in all three persons of the poten- 
tial mode to denote determination on the part of the siibject: /"will not take 
advice, You will not take advice, He will not take advice. {Poteiitial 
Mode) 

Interrogatively. 

3. (g) Shall I?=Is it likely? or Do you wish it? 
(h) Shall you ?=Is it likely ? or Do you intend ? ^ 
(i) Shall he?=Do you wish him ? 

(j) Will you?=Do you promise? or Are you determined? 
(k) Will he?=Does he intend or promise? 

Remark. — Will I ? is always incorrect. 

Rule III — In questions containing shall or will, use the 



SHALL AND WILL. 213 

auxiliary expected in the answer, except with the first per- 
son; there always use shall. 

Thus: Shall I? Answer: You shall. 
Shall hef Answer : He shall. 
Will you f Answer: Iirill. 



J^esson 792, 

Should and Would. 

(Always Potential Past.) 

I thought that I should do it* 
I. ^ I thought that you would do it. 
I thought that he would do it. 
i We should be charitable. 
II. Duty. \ You should be charitable. 
( He should be charitable. 

!If I should happen to try. 
If you should happen to try. 
If he should happen to try. 
!I said I would not do it. 
I said you should not do it. 
I said he should not do it. 

Rule IV. — Use should like shall, and also to express a 
duty or a supposition in all three persons. Use would like 
^vill. 



Zessofi /9S. 

Composition Exercises : 

a. Write two original sentences under each person, to 
illustrate Rules I. and II. 

b. Under each illustration before Rule III. 

c. Under each of the uses of should. 

d. Under each of the uses of would. 

Make oral illustrations of each of the above rapidly. Review 
this frequently. 

*Note. — This, although potential in form, is obviously indicative in 
idea. Emphasize should and the meaning is changed to duty. 



214 VIJRBS AND VERBALS. 

Exercise : 

a. Tell why the italicized words are correct: 

1. I believe I shall not live long. 2. I will sing if possible. 3. Will 
you assist me ? 4. Shall 1 see you at Mrs. Crocker's ? 5. Mother, shall 
Warren gather the cherries now ? 6. You sAa^Z not play with bad chil- 
dren if I can prevent it. 7. You should not jsZa^/ with bad children, for 
your parents would not Z^'^e it. 8. His parents said he should not play 
with bad children, if thej could prevent it. 9. He promised that he womZcZ 
not play with bad children. 10. His parents said they would not let 
him play with bad children. 11. Shall I call to see you to-morrow? 
12. Will she he at home? 13. If I should try, would you help me? (Sup- 
position) 14. If she should try, should I not help her? (Duty) 

b. Fill the following blanks with shall, will, should, or 

would: 

1. If he receives me kindlj^ I ever esteem him a friend. 2. If 

she were present, she be happy. 3. He told me he come if he 

could. 4. He tells me he come if he can. 5. We suppose it 

rain more in California. 6. I thought it likely I see you. 7. 

we take the next three pages? 8. you be sorry if I fail? 

9. I take the next one? 10. you help me? Certainly I . 

11. I drown, nobody help me! 



Subjunctive Mode. 

Examine again the illustrations at the introduction to Mode. 
Define the Subjunctive Mode. 

Examining the conjugation on page 218, you will see that the 
peculiarity of the Subjunctive lies chiefly in its form. The future 
contingency is now frequently asserted by the idiomatic present 
Indicative, as, 

If it is possible, my father will come. 

Or by the Potential ; as, 

If it should he possible, my father will come. 

It is necessary that she should be industrious. 

The mere wish or the supposition contrary to the fact seem to 
be the only places where the Subjunctive form is still positively 
retained; as, 

I wish X were studious, If he were studious, 



SUBJUNCTIVE AND IMPERATIVE MODES. 215 

The present Subjunctive uses the root form of the verb through- 
out: 

Singular. Plural. 

1. That I be, That we be, 

2. That thou be, That you be, 

3. That he be; That we be. 

The past Subjunctive uses the past plural form throughout : 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I were, If we were, 

2. If thou were or wert,* If j^ou were, 

3. If he were; If they were. 

Remark. — When the plural auxiliary have is iised with a subject in the 
second or the third singular, the form is subjunctive; as, If he have gone. 



Lesson W5. 

Imperative Mode. 

Define the Imperative Mode. 

Since in this Mode the verb is always in the present, or root, 
form, it is said to be in the Present Tense, although the idea ex- 
pressed may be either present or future; as, 

Start now. (Present) Start to-morrow. (Future) 

The subject is tliou or you, generally understood, and it may be 
either singular or plural. The Imperative uses the root form of the 
verb in both numbers ; as, 

Be quiet, Nettie. Be quiet, girls. 

Remark. — In poetry the subject of the Imperative is sometimes in the first 
or ill the third person; as, 

Now move we on. Blessed be he that blesseth thee. 

But, unless the subject is thus a declinable pronoun in the nominative 
form, it would be better to consider srich expressions elliptical. 

Be it known. This equals [Let] it [to] be known. 



be known \ Be known 



X . let/ 



A ■ it or X . X / A . it 



*Note.— Compare this with the Indicative, and notice that the verb 
varies shghth^ forming an exception to the general rule for subjunc- 
tives. 



216 VERBS AND VERBALS. 

Conjugation. 

By the Conjugation of a verb is meant a systematic 
arrangement, in some given form (Simple, Progressive, or 
Passive), of all its modes, tenses, persons, numbers, and 
verbals. A Synopsis is the arrangement in but one person 
and number throughout all its modes and tenses. 

[To the Teacher. — The common fault in conjugating is that of mak- 
ing the work a matter of mere memory, and not of understanding. 
Let the pupil compare this table with the preceding explanations, and 
conjugate intelligentl.y. All through the conjugation the pupil should 
be led to observe closely the changes, indicating person or number, that 
take place in the root verb, or in any of the auxiliaries, noticing, in the 
auxiliaries, that all changes are restricted to the first auxiliary.] 

Conjugation of "Do." — Simple Form. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Fir&t. Second. Third. ' Fourth. 

Do. Did. Doing. Done. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

(Uses first form.) 

Singuiar. ' Plural, 

1. I do, We do, 

2. Thou doest. You do, 

3. He does; They do. 

PAST TENSE. 

(Uses second form.) 

1. I did, We did, 

2. Thou didst. You did, 

3. He did; They did. 

FUTURE TENSE. Mere futurity or natural result. 
(Uses first form after auxiliary.) 

1. 1 shall do. We shall do, 

2. Thou wilt do, You will do, 

3. He ivill do; They will do. 



CONJUGATION. 217 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

(Uses the tense auxiliary have, showing the time, and the fourth form, 
showing completion.) 

' 1. I have done, We have done, 

2. Thou hast done; You have done, 

3. He has done; , They have do7ie. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

(Changes present have to past had.) 

1. I had done, We had done, 

2. Thou hadst done, You had done, 

3. He had done; They had done. 

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. Mere futurity or natural result. 
(Time shown by auxiliary shall or will.) 

1. I shall have done. We shall have done, 

2. Thou wilt have done, You will have done, 

3. He will have done; They will have done. 



Zesso?i /97. 

Potential Mode. 

(Here showing power; auxiliary, can.) 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I can do. We can do, 

2. Thou canst do. You can do, 

3. He can do; They can do. 

PAST TENSE. 

(Changes can to could.) 

1. I conld do, We could do, 

2. Tliou couldst do, You could do, 

3. He could do ; They could do. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

(Uses can have and fourth form.) 

1 . I ca7i have done, We can have done, 

2. Thou canst have done, You can have done, 
8. He can have done; They can have done. 



218 



VERBS AND VERBALS. 



PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

(Changes present can to past could.) 

1. I could have done. We could have done, 

2. Thou couldst have done. You could have done, 

3. He could have done; They could have done. 



J^esso?i 798, 

Subjunctive Mode. 

(No changes for person and number.) 

PRESENT TENSE. 

(Root form throughout.) 



Singular. 

1. (If) Ido, 

2. (If) thou do, 

3. (If) he do; 



Plural. 
(If) we do, 
(If) you do, 
(If) they do. 



Note. — It is only in the second and third persons singular that the Sub- 
junctive form differs from the Indicative. 



PAST TENSE. 

(Second form throughout.) 



1. (If) I did, 

2. (U) thou did, 

3. (If) he did; 



(If) we did, 
( If) you did, 
(If) they did. , 



Singular. 
Do (thou) ; 



Present. 
To do: 



Imperfect. 
Doing. 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 
(Root form in both numbers.) 



VERBALS. 

INFINITIVES. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Perfect. 
(Lacking except in 
the passive.) 



Plural. 
Do (you). 



Perfect. 
To have done. 



Compound Perfect. 
Having done. 



CONJUGATION. 219 

Conjugation of "Do" — Emphatic Form. 

Ix\DICATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

(Auxiliary do with first form.) 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I do do, We do do, 

2. Thou dost do* . You do do, 

3. He does do;* They do do. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. I did do, We did do, 

2. Thou didst do, You did do, 

3. He did do; They did do. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. (If) I do do, (If) we do do, 

2. (If) thou do do, (If) you do do, 

3. (If) he do do: (If) they do do. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. (If) I did do, (If) we did do, 

2. (If) thou did do, (If) you did do, 

3. (If) he did do; (If) they did do. 

IMPERATIVE MODE, 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

Do (thou) do; Do (you) do. 

Note. — In the Potential Mode, use may, must, or will in place of can, 
and might, would, or should in place o/ could. 



Zesso?i 799, 

Conjugation of " Be." 
Simple copula, Progressive form, Passive form. 

Direction. — For simple copula fill the blank at the right wdth an 
attribute of the suVjject; for Progressive form, with the third form 
of the verb; for the Passive, with the fourth form of a transitive 
verb. For the third person use one of the three singular pronouns, 
he, she, or it. 

*Note. — Notice the difi'erence between doest and dost, and between 
doeth and doth. 



220 VERBS AND VERBALS. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 



Singular. 

1. I am , 

2. Thou art , 

3. She is ; 


PRESENT TENSE. 
PAST TENSE. 


Plural. 

We are , 

You are , 

They are . 


1. I was , 

2. Thou wast , 

3. She was ; 




We were , 

You were , 

They were . 


1. 1 shall be , 

2. Thou wilt be , 

3. She will be ; 


FUTURE TENSE. 


We shall be , 

You will be , 

They will be . 


PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 


1. I have been , 

2. Thou hast been , 

3. She has been ; 




We have been , 

You have been , 

They have been . 


PAST PERFECT TENSE. 


1. I had been , 

2. Thou hadst been — 

3. She had been ; 


-, 


We had been , 

You had been , 

They had been . 


FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 


1. 1 shall have been — 

2. Thou wilt have been 

3. She will have been — 




We shall have been 

You will have been 

They will have been — 



Potential Mode. Showing possibility. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I m,ay be — — , We may be , 

2. Thou mayst be , You may be , 

3. She may be ; They may be 

PAST TENSE, 

(Change may to the past form.) 

1. I might be , We might be , 

2. Thou mightst be — — , You might be 

3. She might be ; They might be — 



CONJUGA TTON. 221 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I inaij have been , We may have bee)i - — , 

2. Thou mai/st have been , You viai/ have been , 

3. She may have been - — ; They may have been . 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

(Cliange may to the past form.) 

1. I might have been , We might have been , 

2. Thon mightst have beoi , , You might have been , 

3. She might have been ; They might have been . 



Jyessou 200, 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

(Koot form.) 
Singular. Plural. 

1. (Though or that) I be , (Though or that) we be , 

2. (Though or that) thou be , (Though or that) you be 

3. (Though or that) she be ; (Though or that) they be . 

PAST TENSE. 

(Past plural form.) 

1. (Though or that) I were , (Though or that) we were — 

2. ( Though or that) thou M'e?-e or icerf , (Though or that) you trere — 

3. (Though or that) she n'ere ; (Though or that) they uvjr — 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 



Singular. 
5e(thou) ; 


VERBALS. 


Plural. 
Be {you) 


Present. 
To be ; 


INFINITIVES. 
PARTICIPLES. 


Perfect. 
To have been 



Imperfect. Perfect. Compound Perfect. 
Being ; (Lacking, except in the passive.) Having been . 



222 VJERBS AND VERBALS. 

Zesso7i 20/. 

Exercise : 

Conjugate think, try, and ride in the progressive form, 
and see, whip, and lay (to place) in the passive form. 



J^esson 202, 

To give the Synopsis of a verb, arrange one person and 
number of each mode and tense in either of the above 
conjugations. 

Synopsis of "Sit" in the Third, Singular. 

Simple Form. 
PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Sit. Sat. Sitting. Sat. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present, He sits. Present Perfect, He has sat. 

Past, He sat. Past Perfect, He had sat. 

Future, He ivill sit. Future Perfect, He will have sat. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

(Permission.) 

Present, He may sit. Present Perfect, He may have sat. 

Past, He might sit. Past Perfect, He might have sat. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 
Present, (If ) lie sit. Past, (If ) he sat. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 
(Has no Third Person.) 

Zesson 203, 

Exercise : 

Give a synopsis of do in the Progressive Form, First, Sin- 
gular; oi write in the Passive, Third, Plural; of walk, Em- 
phatic; of go, ring, come, and lie, in the Simple and the 



EXERCISES IN MODE AND TENSE. 228 

Progressive; of seat., punish, drive., and tear., in the Simple 
Active and then in the Passive. Take the person and 
number that will make the best sense. 



Jyesso?i 204^. 

Mode and Tense. 



Exercise : 



Give the mode and tense of the italicized words, and tell 
what in the form helps you to decide each: 

1. Though it is summer, it is still cold. 2. Were he more industrious, 
he would succeed. 3. Come, if you wish. 4. Let us try. 5. We have been 
recognized. 6. Thou hast a shadow on thy brow, art thou a friend? 7. 
Columbus thought he could reach the East Indies by sailing westward. 
8. We will vote in spite of opposition. 9. She should not be allowed to 
do that. 10. It is necessary that a student be systematic. 11. It is 
necessary that a student should be systematic. 12. It is evident that 
this student is systematic. 13. My advice to students is, "Be system- 
atic in all you do." 14. If he has done wrong, he will confess it. {Has 
done admits a fact and agrees with he.) 15. If he have done wrong, he 
will confess it. (iTave cZo?ie does not agree with /le.) 16. Yon may try, ii 
you choose. 17. Try, if you choose. 18. You might have done it sooner. 
19. Is it possible that I can have made that mistake frequently? 20. Is 
it possible that I could have made that mistake yesterday? 



Zesso7i 205, 

Rules and Cautions Derived from the Foregoing 
Illustrations. 

I. Verbs in the Indicative and Potential Modes only, 
change to agree with the grammatical subject in person 
and number; as, 

I do, Thou doest, He does. 

Remarks. — 1. The second person singular in the solemn style is not used 
except in prayer or in solemn poetry. With these exceptions, it has become an 
idiom of our language to use the plural pronoun you with its plural verb, 
when the noun represented is singular; as, 

(Solemn style) Thou art the man. Thou doest well. 

(Common style) You are the man. You do well. 



224 VERBS AND VERBALS. 

2. From the above rule, it follows that errors in Number Forms are most 
likely to arise in the indicative verb. Remember that the third, singular 
indicative, except be, adds S or es when its subject is singular; as. 

The horse trots, the kite flies. 

3. The verb be varies more frequently in form than any other. Learn 
its forms from the conjugation, page 220. 

4. Need and dare are exceptions to the rule for agreement with the subject. 

He need not go, He dare not go, 

are well authorized. 

II. All the rules that apply to the agreement of pronouns 
with their antecedents, apply to the agreement of indicative 
verbs with their subjects. 

Turn to Lessons 103, 104, and, in all the rules given, substitute 
the word subject for the word antecedent, and the word verb for the 
word pronoun. Read each rule, and notice the verbs in the sen- 
tences given as illustrations under each. 

Remark. — When subjects connected by or require different forms of the 
verb, it is better to express the verb with each; as. 

He is to blame or else I am. 



J^esson 206. 

Exercise : 

Tell why the Number Forms of the verbs in the following 
are correct. To find the grammatical subject, make a short 
analysis of each sentence: 

1. That horse trots well. 2. Those horses trot well. 3. Richard, 
where were you at that time? 4. Scissors is always in the plural num- 
ber. (The word scissors) 5. Longfellow's poems are celebrated the 
world over. 6. My copy of " Longfellow's Poems " was a gift. 7. Lord, 
thou hast been our dwelling place in all generations. 

8. Thou, Lord of life, whose tender care 
Hath led us on till now. 

9. thou that roUest above. 
Round as the shield of my fathers ! 
Whence are thy beams, O sun ! 
Thy everlasting light? 

10. Three-fourths of her illness is imaginary. (One quantity) 11. 
Three-fourths of the diseases there are contagious. (A number of dis- 



EXERCISES IN FORMS 225 

eases) 12. To love one's neighbor as one's self is often verj'- difficult. 
13. To promise and to do are two very different things. 14. That the 
whole is greater than any of its parts, is a self-evident truth. 15. This 
great scholar and statesman, Gladstone, is an indefatigable worker. 
16. Neither the pastor nor his wife has returned yet. 17. The captain, 
as well as the crew, was lost. 18. Either you were there or your sister 
was. 19. Every man, woman, and child has been provided for. 20. The 
merchant, and not his clerks, was to blame. 21. Lord's " Beacon 
Lights " is a very interesting history. 22. Neither you are going nor I. 
(Better than Neither you nor lam going.) 23. Each box and each barrel 
is in its place. 21. I will rebuke him that is at fault. 25. I will rebuke 
you that are at fault. 26. The committee are divided in sentiment. 
27. The church has nothing but moral power with which to punish 
offenders. 28. There is a herd of buflfalo. 29. Art thou the man that 
came from Judah? 



Zesso?i 207. 

Exercise : 

Fill the following blanks with verbs or auxiliaries in the 
appropriate person and number forms: 

1. Thou my friend, else I not trust thee. 2. He my 

friend, else I not trust him. 3. You my friend, else he 

not trust you. 4. you there? 5. No one to be laughed at. 6. 

The messengers returned. 7. This pen given to me. 8. My watch 

stolen from me. 9. Both his sons run away. 10. Sixty days' 

interest now due. 11. The nation out of debt. 12. "Agreed," 

I ; " no, no," he. 13. your mother or Miss Trench at 

home? 14. There the children. 15. Two thirds of her hair 

gray. 16. One half the infantry without shoes. 17. No trouble 

and no expense too great. 18. Thou bark that with man, 

haste, haste, to cleave the seas ! 19. Proof, and not assertion, what 

required. 20. If the majority of the people otherwise, the 

town will not be improved. 21. To be slandered by the envious and 

persecuted by the wicked common trials of the good. 22. The 

attorney and notary next door a large business. 23. May, with her 

friends, always ready for a frolic. 24. The jury failed to agree, and 

dismissed. 25. A stage or a wagon meet every train. 26. 

Every leaf, every flower, and every blade of grass a wonder of cre- 
ation. 27. Young's "Night Thoughts" a well-known poem. 28. 

There a school of fish, 29. Either Will made a mistake or I 

. 30. thou he that save Israel? 31. All that present 

applauded. 32. Then Jerry , " Where are you going ? " and we , 

" To town." 

15-G 



226 VERBS AND VERBALS. 

Zesson 208. 

III. That which is true or false at all times should be 
expressed in the indicative present. 

IV. A future contingency or a future uncertainty is best 
expressed in the subjunctive present; a mere supposition or 
a mere wish, in the subjunctive past; but a supposition 
admitted as a fact should be in the indicative mode. 

Exercise : 

Tell which of the above rules applies to each of the fol- 
lowing sentences, and why some of the verbs do not agree 
with the subject: 

1. The lecturer told the class that water is composed of oxygen and 
hydrogen. 2. He certainly will not learn to run unless he walk first. 
3. If I w^ere a millionaire, I would establish a hospital, 4. Victoria has 
not much power, although she is queen of England. 5. I told you before 
that I am eighteen to-day. 6. Mj^ father taught me that a true gentle- 
man is always polite, and that no polite person ever smokes where it 
could be offensive to others. 7. Oh that 1 were able to help all man- 
kind ! 8. It is desirable that he be required to take an oath. 9. Were 
she as talented as she considers herself, she would obtain a position 
without difficulty. 10. Tell that child to be careful lest he fall. 11. 
Though Napoleon was so persevering, yet his life was a failure. 12. I 
told you once that the distance is one thousand miles, but I find I 
was mistaken. 13. I learned yesterday that the distance is one thousand 
miles. 14. Resolved : That the mayor be and is hereby requested to 
appoint a suitable committee to investigate this matter. 15. If my 
cousin was there, I did not see him. 



Zesson 209. 

V. In connecting words expressing time, the proper order 
and fitness of time should be observed. Verbs that depend 
upon each other must be put in corresponding tenses; as, 

1. After I had left, he went away. 

(Here the first action, that of leaving, was completed before the 
other, that of going, was begun.) 

2. I say that I will go (that is), if I he able, or if I can. 

3. I said that I would go (that is), if I were able, or if I could. 



EXERCISES. 227 

4. Such things were formerly quite common. {Not had been) 
(^Formerly shows mere past time, not completion.) 

5. He starts for New York next week, (Idiomatic indicative present) 
Better : He will start for New York next week. 

Exercise : 

Fill the following blanks with appropriate verbs of one or 
more words, according to the last three rules: 

1. The army before the enemy came up. 2. If he might come, 

he behave better, 3. The holidays in three days. 4. Pompey 

is defeated and into Egypt. (Figure of Vision) 5. He let the glass 

fall and it. 6. "We learned that diphtheria contagious. 7. The 

nurse said that one sign of fever thirst. 8. I wish 1 rich, 9. 

The carriages that in use in those days were clumsy vehicles. 10. 

Napoleon exiled once before he was sent to St. Helena. 11. If she 

made of iron, she might endure it all. 12. Our hero at twenty-five 

was pure and noble. He carefully trained by his mother in all 

manly virtues. 13. When we looked out again, the ship beneath 

the sea and nothing to be seen. 14. 1 Latin two years by the 

end of this term. 15. She has never done it yet, but she it soon. 



Jvesso?i 2/0, 

Errors in Form, Mode, Tense, Person, and Number. 

Exercise : 

Correct the following and apply the formula given under 
Nouns and Pronouns: 

1. The house is building. 

Remark. — This form is, perhaps, admissible, but as it seems to make the 
house the a^tor, not the receiver, it is better to say. The house is being built. 

2. If I was a man I would not sit idle, 3. Was you there when she 
sang? 4, She that was idle, now seemed transformed into a model of 
industry. 5. I did not do it yet, 6. I hope you got there in good sea- 
son. 7. It is certain that he trj'- hard. 8. It is necessary that he tries 
hard, 9. If you was I, what would you do? 10. Can I take your fan? 
11. He don't like music. 12. I wish that she was more polite. 13. I 
hope he doesn't make that blunder again. 14. Should you marry 
against your parents' wishes, if you was he? 15. Either he or thou art 
troubled. 16. If she would do that accidentally, she would be very 
careless. 17. This article stated that cholera existed only where there 



228 VERBS AND VERBALS. 

was filth. 18. I had company ever since last Friday, and haint got 
my lesson. 19. Neither Dick nor George like the city. 20. 1 am not 
acquainted with her long. 21. Four months' salary were received. 22, 
Where be you, Charlie? 23. If he was ill, he could not walk. 24. 
Though he be eighty, he is still hale and hearty. 25. Miss Lucy, can I 
speak to you for a moment? 

Zesson 2^/7, 

More About Verbals. 

You have already learned that a verbal is a word derived from 
a verb, but differing from it by assuming the action, being, etc., 
instead of asserting; that verbals are classified, like the verbs from 
which they are derived, into weak and strong, transitive and 
intransitive, active, passive, and neuter: that there are two kinds 
of verbals, viz., infinitives and participles; and you have seen that 
each may perform various offices, and that they differ from each 
other chiefly in form. 

It now remains to discover their other variations and what rules 
control their use. In order to be prepared to understand these 
clearly, review what is said of verbals in Part I, Lesson 41, and 
remember what is said of verbals, in connection with verbs. Then 
write ten sentences, giving as many different uses of verbals as 
you can. 

Uses of Infinitives. 
Exercises : 

a. Analyze each sentence and note the office of the 
infinitive: 

Substantive in Office. 

I. To write with a short pencil cramps the hand. 2. To have written 
better would have been impossible. 3. To he seen in such company is a 
disgrace. 4. To have been seen there then would have been dangerous. 
5. He intended to tell you. 6. She hoped to meet you there. 7. It is diffi- 
cult to learn to paint. 8. She ought to he truthful. 9. She ought to have 
heen truthful before. 

Adverbial in Office. 

10. Sir Launfal went forth in his unscarred mail, 
To search in all climes for the Holy Grail. 

II. He looks honest enough to he trusted. 12. We were anxious to do 
it well. 



USES OF VERBALS. 229 

Adjective in Office. 

13. He is not a man to desert his friends. (Kind of man) 14. Is she 
a woman to be honored '? 15. We saw the enemy fall. ( To understood — 
Attribute of object) 16. The enemy were seen to fall. (Attribute of 
the subject) 



enemy , were seen 



J. 



Independent in Office. 



17. To tell you the truth, Laura is a much better scholar than Frank. 
18. To put it in the form of a proverb, One definition made by the pupil 
is worth a dozen learned. 



Ijesso7i 2/2. 

b. Select the active, the passive, and the neuter infini- 
tives in the above. Notice their forms. Compare to write 
in (1) with to have written in (2). 



Zesso7i 2/3, 

Conclusions: 

1. Infinitives may be used substantively, adverbially, 
adjectively, or independently. 

2. There are two tense forms, the Present and the Perfect; 



To write, 


to have written; 


To he, 


to have been; 


To he seen, 


to have been seen. 



3. The present active and the neuter infinitives consist of 
the particle to and the root form of the verb; as, to write, 
to be. 

4. The present passive infinitive consists of to be and the 
fourth form of a transitive verb; as, to be seen, to be broken. 



230 VERBS AND VERBALS. 

5. The perfect active and the neuter infinitives consist of 
to have and the fourth form of a verb; as, to have written, to 
have been. 

6. The perfect passive infinitive consists of to have been 
and the fourth form of a transitive verb; as, to have been 
seen, to have been broken. 

Remark. — Infinitives, like verbs, may have a progressive form also; as, 
to be doing, to have been doing, etc. 

Zesson ^/^. 

Rules for the Use of Infinitives. 

Rule I. — The present infinitive, not the perfect, should be 
used after verbs or verbals expressing intention, desire, per- 
mission, hope, etc., to express an idea relatively present or 
future; thus. 

He intended to he there, not to have been there. 

I hoped you would permit us to see your present, not to have seen. 

Remark.— Tre may say, He ought to be and He ought to have been, 
because ought has but one form. 

Rule II. — After the active verbs bid, dare, hear, feel, let, 
make, need, and see, and some of their equivalents, the par- 
ticle to of the infinitive is omitted; as, 

I made him try. I had him bring my book. 
. But after the passive form of these verbs and either form of other 
verbs, the to should be expressed; thus, 

The boy was seen to leave the room. The beggar was bidden to eat 
his fill. 

Remark.— T/ie To Be of the passive infinitive is frequently omitted after 
make, feel, hear, and see ; thus, 

I felt the house shaken by a severe earthquake. (To be shaken) 

Rule III. — When two infinitives are joined in the same 
construction, without any intervening words, the particle to 
of the second infinitive may be omitted; as. 

Try to do good and avoid evil. 



USES AND FORMS OF PARTICIPLES. 231 

Rule IV. — Do not use the particle to instead of the full 
infinitive, unless the word or words omitted can be supplied 
from the preceding verb or verbal. 

Incorrect : I see you have not gone, but T heard you wished to [have 
gone]. 

Corrected : I see you have not gone, but I heard you wished to go. 



Wesson 2/5, 

Composition Exercises : 

a. ^^>ite original sentences illustrating each point in the 
four preceding rules. 

b. Fill each of the following blanks with one or more 
words illustrating the rules for infinitives; and give reasons 
for the words supplied: 

1. I hoped ■ you last w^eek. 2. Bid the child in out of the cold. 

3. He intended sooner than he . 4. Did you hear the woman 

when the gun was fired ? 5. Children can be made the practi- 
cal use of grammar. 6. A good teacher will make himself . 7. If 

you wish to understand your lessons and them intelligently, make 

yourself frequentlj^ with your eyes closed. 8. He has not sharp- 
ened the pencil, but he promised . 



J^esso7i 2/6, 

Uses and Forms of Participles. 

The word participle means that which takes part. A 
]xirticiple takes part in the nature of a verb and an adjec- 
tive, or else in the nature of a verb and a noun. Some- 
times the participle is used independently. 

Exercise : 

Analyze these sentences, noticing the offices of the parti- 
ciples and their variations in form. Notice which are 
active, which passive, and which neuter. 



232 VERBS AND VERBALS. 

Adjective in Office. 

1. That tall officer waving the flag yonder is a colonel, 2. We met 
two men carrying packs. 3. Hearing my name spoken, I paused to listen. 
4. They found the \yaier frozen. 5. Helen sat thinking deeply. (Attri- 
bute of the subject) 



\thinking 



Helen , sat 




6. The city lay sleeping. 7. Having repaired the bridge, the troops passed 
over. 8. The bridge having been repaired, the troops passed over. 9. The 
house being built there belongs to Mr. Spencer. 

Substantive in Office. 

10. The crew attracted attention by waving the flag. 11. He was 
accused of being unjust. 12. Your having made this slight mistake 
need not discourage you. 

Independent in Office. 

13. Considering the difficulties, you have succeeded very well. 14. 
Speaking of crystals, have you seen the large one that we found yester- 
day ? 15. CalciUating roughly, it will cost five dollars. 16. Estimating 
it in centals, how large a crop of wheat shall you have ? 

Remark. — A participle may become a real adjective; as, 

The buzzing insect woke me; 

A real noitn; as, 

The buzzing of the bees awoke me; 

Or an adverb of degree; as, 

The water is boiling hot. 



Zesson 2/7. 

Conclusions: 

1. Participles may be used adjectively, substantively, or 
independently. 

2. Participles have three forms, or tenses — the Imperfect.^ 
the Perfect, and the Compound Perfect^ or Preperfect. Ex- 
amples: Writing, written, having written. 

3. The imperfect participle expresses an event as incom- 



USES AND FORMS OF PARTICIPLES. 233 

plete at the time shown by the rest of the sentence. (See 
sentences 1 and 2, last lesson.) 

4. The perfect participle expresses an event as completed 
at the time shown by the rest of the sentence. (See sen- 
tence 4.) 

5. The compound perfect participle expresses the com- 
pletion of an event previous to the time shown by the rest 
of the sentence. (See sentences 7 and 8.) 

i Active, Writing, building, seeing. 
Neuter, Being. 
Passive, Being written, being built, being seen. 
Perfect— Passive, Written, built, seen. 

( Active, Having written, having built. 
Compound Perfect — -n Neuter, Having been. 

( Passive, Having been xvritten, having been built. 

6. The imperfect active or neuter participle is the third 
form of the verb and is always simple. 

7. The imperfect passive participle consists of being and 
the fourth form of a transitive verb. 

8. The perfect participle is always passive and always 
simple. It is the fourth form of a transitive verb. 

9. The compound perfect participle, active or neuter, 
consists of . 

10. The compound perfect passive participle consists 
of . 

[To the Teacher.— Let the pupil fill the blanks in 9 and 10, after he 
has examined the preceding table.] 



J^esso?i 2/8, 

Composition Exercise : 

Compose or select sentences illustrating each kind of 
participle and the different offices of participles, as shown 
in the preceding work, observing the following rules : 

Rule^ for the Use of Participles. 

Rule I. — When a participial phrase is independent or is 



234 VERBS AND VERBALS. 

used as an adjective adjunct, but is not restrictive, set it off 
by the comma; as. The children, gathering around the old 
man, asked for a story. (Adjective Adjunct) 

Remark. — Such a phrase is equal to a non-restrictive clause, i. e.: The 
children, who gathered around the old man, asked for a story. In the 
sentence, 1 mean the officer waving the flag there, the phrase is restrictive, 
equaling the clause, that is waving the flag, and showing the specific indi- 
vidual; therefore it is not set off hy the comma. 

Rule 11. — When a participle is not independent, see that 
it relates clearly to the true subject of the being, action, or 
state of being. 

Ambiguous : I saw a bunch of beautiful pinks, passing by a shop 
window. 

Transposed : Passing by a shop window, I saw a bunch of beautiful 
pinks. 

Remark. — It is more euphonious also, as well as clearer, to place the par- 
ticipial phrase before the subject, particularly if the latter is a pronoun. 

Ride III. — Wherever the use of the participle produces 
awkwardness, ambiguity, or obscurity, use in its place a 
common noun, an infinitive, a clause, or some other equiv- 
alent. 

One's utterly neglecting his own children is sinful. 

Substitute a noun : 

An utter neglect of one'' s own children is sinful; 

Or an infinitive : 

To neglect one' a- own children utterly is sinful. 

Do you remember his sister's shooting several ducks ? 

Change to a clause : 

Do you remember that his sister shot several ducks? 

Rule IV. — AVhen a transitive verb or participle is fully 
changed into a verbal adjective, a preposition is needed to 
govern that which was before the object of the verb or par- 
ticiple; as, 

That child's face is interesting me. (Progressive form, present tense) 
That child's face is very interesting to me. (Verbal adjective, no 
particular time, preposition inserted) 



PARSING VERBALS. 285 

Rule V. — When a verbal noun is derived from a transi- 
tive participle, insert the preposition 0/ to govern that which 
was before the object of the participle; as, 

This governing of ourselves is an essential part of self-culture. 

Zesson 2/9, 

Exercise : 

Correct the following by the first three rules: 

1. I mean the woman, carrying that baby. 2. Being conscious of his 
state, death seemed very near. 3. Sacrificing herself to her children is 
a mother's nature. 4. Edith overwhelmed by a great breaker sank out 
of sight. 5. Walking in the Park may be seen a large century plant. 
6. It is careless sitting on the edge of a precipice. 7. 1 remember Susie's 
sitting there once. 8. By requiring the children to express themselves 
in writing frequently, they become accustomed to composition. 9. Suf- 
fering needlessly is never a duty. 10. Piety is earnestly desiring to do 
God's will, not our own. 11. Analysis is separating a sentence into its 
parts. 12. He intends going in a few days. 

Correct the following by the last two rules: 

13. Synthesis is the building sentences. 14. That game is very 
amusing me. 15. Have you any instructions for the raising that 
money ? 16. That book is quite entertaining him. 



Zesson 220, 

Parsing Verbals. 



Models: 



(a) Sir Thomas More refused to take the oath. 

To take is a present, active, transitive infinitive, from take, took, tak- 
ing, taken. 

Conjugated: j Present, «o <aA:e. 

( Perfect, to have taken. 

Used substantively as the object of refused. 

Rule. — Infinitives may be used substantively, adverbially, adjective- 
ly, or independently. 

(h) Having been forsaken by all her friends, she died in poverty 
and obscurity. 

Having been forsaken is a compound perfect passive participle, from 
forsake, forsook, forsaking, forsaken. 



236 VERBS AND VERBALS. 

( Imperfect, being forsaken. 
Conjugated: -s Ferfect, forsaken. 

(Compound Perfect, having been forsaken. 
Used as an adjective adjunct of she. 

JRw/e.— Participles may be used adjectively, substantively, or inde- 
pendently. 

Exercise : 

a. Parse the verbals in the following sentences according 
to the above models : 

1. They began to be frightened at the thunder. 2. She turned to see 
who had spoken. 3. Having caught the thief, he hoped to be able to 
prove his guilt. 4. He died loved by all. 5. There being many poison- 
ous plants in the vicinity, the children were told not to play with any 
plants. 

b. Parse all the verbals in ( Infinitives (Lesson 211). 

the examples of ( Participles (Lesson 216). 



SELECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS. 237 

CHAPTER X. 

Jjesson 22^ . 

Selections for Analysis. 

As Caesar loved me, I weep for him; as he was fortunate, I 
rejoice at it ; as he was vaUant, I honor him ; but as he was ambi- 
tious, I slew him. There are tears for his love ; joy, for his fortune ; 
honor, for his valor ; and death, for his ambition ! Who is here so 
base that would be a bondman? If any, speak, for him have I 
offended. Who is here so rude that would not be a Roman? If 
any, speak, for him have I offended. Who is here so vile that will 
not love his country? If any, speak, for him have I offended. I 
pause for a reply. — Shakespeare. 

The person by whose advice William appears to have been at 
this time chiefly guided as to Scotch politics, was a Scotchman of 
great abilities and attainments. Sir James Dalrymple of Stair, the 
founder of a family eminently distinguished at the bar, on the 
bench, in the senate, in diplomacy, in arms, and in letters, but 
distinguished also by misfortunes and misdeeds which have fur- 
nished poets and novelists with materials for the darkest and most 
heart-rending tales. — Macauiay. 

jDesson 222, 

Selections for Analysis. 

A nightingale, that all day long 
Had cheered the village with his song. 
Nor yet at eve his note suspended. 
Nor yet when eventide was ended. 
Began to feel, as well he might, 
The keen demands of appetite ; 
When, looking eagerly around, 
He spied far off, upon the ground, 
A something shining in the dark. 
And knew the glow-worm by his spark ; 
So, stooping down from hawthorn top. 
He thought to put him in his crop. 
The worm, aware of his intent. 
Harangued him thus, right eloquent : 



238 SELECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS 

" Did you admire my lamp," quoth he, 
" As much as I your minstrelsy, 

You would abhor to do me wrong, 

As much as I to spoil your song ; 

For 'twas the self-same Power divine 

Taught you to sing, and me to shine ; 

That you with music, I with light. 

Might beautify and cheer the night.^' 

— Cowper. 

Zesson 223, 

Selections for Analysis. 

We are the mariners, and God the Sea, 
And though we make false reckonings, and run 
Wide of a righteous course, and are undone, 

Out of His deeps of love, we cannot be. 

For by those heavy strokes we misname ill, 
Through the fierce fire of sin, through tempering doubt. 
Our natures more and more are beaten out 

To perfecter reflections of His will ! 

— Alice, Carey. 

It may be true that the men of good systems are worse than their 
principles, and the men of bad systems better than their principles ; 
but, speaking of systems, and not of men, I am convinced that the 
time has come when religion itself requires a vigorous protest 
against this kind of religionism. — Hon. w. e. Gladstone. 

Ijesson 22 J^. 

Selections for Analysis. 

Peace to the just man's memory : let it grow 

Greener with years, and blossom through the flight 

Of ages ; let the mimic canvas show 
His calm, benevolent features; let the light 

Stream on his deeds of love, that shunned the sight 
Of all but heaven, and in the book of fame 

The glorious record of his virtues write 

And hold it up to men, and bid them claim 
A palm like his, and catch the hallowed flame. 

. —W. G. Bryant, 



SELECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS. 239 

Whether the idle prisoner through his grate 

Watches the wa\dng of the grass-tuft small, 

Which having colonized its rift i' the wall, 
Takes its free risk of good or evil fate, 

And from the sky's just helmet draws its lot 

Daily of shower or sunshine, cold or hot; 
Whether the closer captive of a creed, 

Cooped up from birth to grind out endless chaff, 

Sees through his treadmill-bars the noon-day laugh, 
And feels in vain his crumpled pinions breed; 

Whether the Georgian slave look up and mark. 

With bellying sails puffed full, the tall cloud-bark 
Sink northward slowly, — thou alone seem'st good, 

Fair only thou, O Freedom, whose desire 

Can light in muddiest souls quick seeds of fire 
And strain life's chords to the old heroic mood. 

— James R. Lowell. 



Ijesson 225. 

Selections for Analysis. 

As some poor wretch confined 
In cells loud with meaningless laughter, whose mind 
Wanders trackless amidst its own ruins, may hear 
A voice heard long since, silenced many a year. 
And now, 'mid mad ravings recaptured again. 
Singing through the caged lattice a once well-known strain. 
Which brings back his boyhood upon it, until 
The mind's ruin'd crevices graciously fill 
With music and memory, and, as it were. 
The long-troubled spirit grows slowly aware 
Of the mockery round it, and shrinks from each thing 
It once sought, — the poor idiot who pass'd for a king, 
Hard by, with his squalid straw crown, now confess'd 
A madman more painfully mad than the rest, — 
So the sound of her voice, as it there wander'd o'er 
His echoing heart, seem'd in part to restore 
The forces of thought : he recaptured the whole 
Of his life by the light, which, in passing, her soul 
Reflected on his : he appeared to awake 
From a dream, and perceived he had dream'd a mistake: 



240 SELECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS. 

His spirit was softened, yet troubled in him : 
He felt his lips falter, his eyesight grow dim. 

— Owen Meredith (Lucile). 



Zesso7i 226, 

Selections for Analysts. 

Yet sets she not her soul so steadily 
Above, that she forgets her ties to earth, 
But her whole thought would almost seem to be 
How to make glad one lowly human hearth ; 
For with a gentle courage she doth strive 
In thought and word and feeling so to live 
As to make earth next heaven ; and her heart 
Herein doth show its most exceeding worth. 
That, bearing in our frailty her just part, 
She hath not shrunk from evils of this life, 
But hath gone calmly forth into the strife. 
And all its sins and sorrows hath withstood 
With lofty strength of patient womanhood : 
For this I love her great soul more than all. 
That, being bound, like us, with earthly thrall. 
She walks so brightly and heaven-like therein, — 
Too wise, too meek, too womanly, to sin. 

— James B. Lowell. 



MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS IN SYNTAX. 241 

CHAPTER XI. 
Miscellaneous Errors in Syntax. 

[To the Teacher.— The fact is fully recognized, that, in presenting 
errors of any kind, there is danger of teaching or propagating the 
errors, rather than of correcting them. It is believed, however, that 
an error presented as an error will be avoided rather than adopted. With 
most of the expressions here presented, the child is already familiar 
through the ear, but he may not recognize them as errors. Indeed, many 
of them are often incorporated in his own language. This being true, 
there is little danger of teaching incorrect language by the study of 
common errors in syntax. On the contrary, the constant examination 
and criticism of such errors must assist in eradicating them from the 
language of the pupil. The exercises given below, taken largely from 
the language of pupils in the higher grades of the public schools, are 
given for this careful examination and criticism. In order to empha- 
size the errors as errors, the incorrect portions of each sentence are ital- 
icized. The pupil should be able to specify clearly what the error is, 
and, if required, to apply the proper rule or caution. He should also 
be encouraged to observe closely his own language and the language of 
others, noting erroneous expressions, until, in the end, his ear detects 
an error in language as readily as a trained ear detects a false note in a 
familiar tune,] 

Zesso?i 227, 

[To the Teacher. — In this lesson an effort is made to collect, for 
constant observation, the most common errors found in the language 
of the pupils in our schools, especially the graver errors, those that 
show a great lack of discernment and culture. Most of these have been 
noticed in former lessons, but are repeated here to emphasize them. 
The pupil should be so continuously drilled upon the corrections of 
these errors that thej'' never escape his notice, in his own language or 
in the language of others. The list might be greatly lengthened, but it 
is hoped that teachers -will themselves be on the alert to detect the 
vagrants in our language and to do all in their power to drive them 
out. First, though perhaps not strictly belonging here, are 

Some School-Words Commonly Mispronounced. 



Incorrect. 


Correct. 


Incorrect. 


Correct. 


dee'strict 


dis'trict 


hecuz 


because 


re^cess 


recess' 


ketch 


catch 


masculine 


masculine 


kin 


can 


nomitive or iiomnative 


nominative 


gu 


get 


1&-G 









242 ERRORS IN GRAMMATICAL FORMS. 



Incorrect. 


Correct. 


Incorrect. 


Correct. 


artic 


arctic 


fur 


for 


antartic 


antarctic 


Toosday 


Tuesday 


are'a 


a^rea 


Febuary 


Febrtiary 


construe^ 


con^strue 


noos 


news 


misconstrue' 


misconstrue 


drownded 


drowned 


Heven 


eleven 


kep 


kept 


jography 


geography 


ben 


been 



Errors in Grammatical Forms. 

[Most of the errors given below, however gross they may seem, are 
to be found in the language of a large majority of the pupils, and not a 
few of the teachers, in our public schools.] 

1. I done it, for I did it. 2. I done it like he did, for I did it as he did. 
3. I seen him, for I saw him. 4. I hain't saiv him to-day, for I haven't 
seen him to-day. 5. We have went clean through the book, for we have 
gone entirely through the book. 

General Caution. — Use done^ gone^ and seen only with 
some form of the helping verbs liave or he; as, 

It is done; it was done; it will be done; he has done his work; they 
had done well. 

When there is no helping verb, use did^ saw, and went; as, 

I did ; he saw ; we went ; etc. 

Allied to these errors, and almost as common, are the 

following: 

Come for came ; as, I come to school this morning for I came, etc. 
Run for ran, begun for began, sung /or sang, rung /or rang. 

Apply caution as above. 

With helping verbs use come, run, begun, sung, rung, etc., 
to express past thne. 

Without helping verbs use came, ran, began, sang, rang, 
etc., to express past time. 

The very common verbs sit and set, and also the verbs lie 
and lay are constantly misused; as, 

May I set here ? for May I sit here ? It laid there all night, for It lay 
there all night. It has laid there an hour, for It has lain there an hour. 

These errors can best be eradicated by fixing in the mind 



ERRORS IN GRAMMATICAL FORMS. 243 

the meaning of each verb. To lie is to recline, to lay is to 
place. 

He has lain there^ means he has reclined there. He has 
laid [something] there., means he has_pZacg(i something there. 

Sit means to assume or retain a certain position. 

Set means to place. 

To set there means to place something, as a chair, or 
stool, there.- 

This verb, however, has many different significations; as, 
the sun set, the garment sets, etc. It can be mastered only 
by a careful study, from the dictionary, of its various uses, 
and a constant Avatch fulness to discriminate between it and 
the verb sit. 

[The ingenuity of the teacher should here suggest a multitude of 
sentences in which the pupil is to use the verbs lie and lay, and sit and 
set, until the correct use becomes a habit.] 

The use of lihe for as, or of liJce for as if, is a very common 

error in many localities; as, 

Do it like I do, for Do it as I do. It seems like it will never stop 
raining, for It seems as if (or as though) it will, etc. 

These errors are, to the cultivated ear, very obvious, and 
grate harshly. 

It should be fixed in mind that lil-e may be a preposition 
or an adverb, but never a conjunction. He acts like (prep.) 
his brother, is correct. He acts like (conj.) his brother acts, 
is incorrect. 

The use of will and would in the first person to express 

simple futurity is also very common; as, 

Will we take the next lesson? for Shall we take the next lesson? 
I fear we will have to do it, for I fear we shall have to do it. 

Direction.— Use will and would in the first person when it is a mat- 
ter determined by your own will. But to say, I think we will have rain, 
when the will of the speaker has nothing to do with it, is absurd. 

We promise or resolve with will, but foretell or conjecture with shall. 

The use of the verb get (form got), after have or have not, 
is also common ; as, 



244 ERROBS IN THE USE OF NOUNS AND PRONOZINS 

I have got my lesson, for I have my lesson ; He has got mumps, for 
He has mumps. 

When mere possession is sought to be expressed by have 
got, omit got, as the idea is fully and better expressed by 
the verb have. Got should be used only where obtained can 
be used in its place. / have got to go home, is not nearly 
so elegant as / have to go home, or I must go home. 

The verb can in an interrogative sentence is almost inva- 
riably misused in place of may; as, 

Can I leave the room ? instead of May 1 leave the room ? 

Use may to ask or assert permission; can to ask or to 
assert ability or power. 

Bad and badly are commonly interchanged; as, 

I feel badly, for I feel bad; He looks badly, for He looks bad; He acts 
bad, for He acts badly. 

Use bad (adj.) to describe a person or an object; badly 
(adv.) to describe the manner of performing an action. 

[This list might be lengthened indefinitely, and the observant teac2ier 
will not fail to collect, in any locality, the errors of speech there preva- 
lent, putting his own habitual errors at the head, and then, with a con- 
tinuous effort try to eradicate them from his own language as well as 
from the language of his pupils. To teach and to train the young to 
use pure English is among the highest educational duties.] 

Zesson 228. 
Ereors in the Use of Nouns and Pronouns. 

1. 'Who have they at their place for pastor now ? 2. I saw some one 
who I took to be sh£,. 3. Who is that book written by ? 4. Whomever 
tries with his whole soul will succeed. 5. Whoever Miss B. has pro- 
moted will be thorough. 6. The boys hurt theirselves running too fast. 
7. This is the book what you asked for. 8. I know that was me. 9. They 
will walk behind you and I. 10. I knew it was her. 11. Whom were 
they ? 12. He took Walter and J out for a ride. 13. Thern are nice apples. 
14. It was me. 15. Give me the books, them on the desk. 16. Who did 
she go with ? 17. Us girls will go. 18. Her and I saw them. 19. My 
apple is hard. Is yourn? 20. He said you and me could go. 21. May 
Jennie go with Mary and I? 22. Some one has lost their ribbon. 



IN USE OF ADJECTIVES, ADVERBS, CONJUNCTIONS 245 

Errors in the Use of Adjectives. 

1. TJiose class of people are always the same. 2. It is awful good. 3. 
Them are sailors. 4. She gave us an awful little bit. 5. The right and 
left hand are not equally useful. G. We had a loveh/ time. 7. It was 
that long. 8. 1 brought them roses. 9. I didn't know it was that late. 
10. This is my most often mistake. 11. She is a small little woman. 12. 
The horse and the buggy that I drive is new. 13. The two first girls did 
not keep step. 14. This house is commodious and new. 15. You make 
less mistakes than I make. 



Zesso7i 229. 

Errors in the Use of Adverbs. 

1. I feel finely this morning. 2. He came hack here again. 3. She 
did n't give us no abstract. 4. It is not wrong I do n't think. 5. Does n't 
she sing sweet f 6. I never did so )30or in an examination before. 7. That 
ain't nothing nohow. 8. Most every one goes there. 9. I can't do nothing. 
10. I did n't say no such a thing. 11. Sing it over again. 12. I do not un- 
derstand it quite. 13. I only have two or three. 14. I am not going to 
put down none. 15. Herman feels very badly about his mistake. 16. I 
don't make any besides these here. 17. It won't do no good to fret. 18. I 
can't findi nothing. 19. 'Ra.n^ \t out here. 20. It is ?nosf too far. 21. Most 
everybody went. 22. He tried to quickly rectify the mistake. 23. It is so 
horribly cold. 24. I 07ily brought a dime. 25. I used to always think that 
that was correct. 26. Do you know where that there book of designs is ? 
27. It sounds queerly. 28. He reviewed up before school began. 29. Do n't 
you wish you could write as nice as that? 30. I did n't teach good at all. 
31. Redundancy is where too many words are used. 32. Homicide is 
when a man takes another's life without just provocation. 33. Teach 
him to do his work good. 34. I get tired of hearing people constantly 
complain sometimes. 35. That is done pretty good, isn't it? It looks 
good. 

Zesson 230. 

Errors in the Use of Conjunctions. 

1. I feel like I was hungry. 2. This drawing did not look as neat as 
the other. 3. It looks like as though it would rain. 4. I don't know as 
I have anything to say. 5. She is a little woman like I am. 6. I cannot 
believe but what he knows me. 7. I can 't say as I can come. 8. When 
that my sister heard the news she looked like she w^ould die. 9. I wished 
to go where that I could get niedical treatment, 



246 ERRORS IN USE OF PREPOSITIONS, VERBS, VERBALS. 

-Errors in the Use of Prepositions. 

1. We went /or to ride. 2. I saw him doing 0/ it. 3. I do n't remem- 
ber of seeing it. 4. He will scold at you. 5. She went in room R and 
found her book. 6. ^Vhat is the matter o/you? 7. I am angry a< you. 
8. Where is my book at? 9. She has been trying of it a long time. 



Jjesso7i 237, 

Errors in the Use of Verbs and Verbals. 

1. I never seen her. 2. Can I pass you this ? 3. I have did aU my 
work. 4. The orange do n't taste nicely. 5. I done it. 6. I wish I ivas in 
your place. 7. Everybody has got one. 8. I seen him. 9. I have saw 
larger ones than that. 10. I intended to have went Friday. 11. I guess I 
m^Z not go until Saturday. 12. She co »ie last night. 13. Mr. P. and Mr. 
S. is absent. 14. I ain't going. 15. Accidents is often caused by such 
carelessness. 16. The bell has rangr. 17. Hain't you got your map yet? 
18. I know there was no cars there. 19. 1 wo)i't want any. 20. Do you 
remember the day we simg that song? 21. I have did all my work. 
22. I went and said it before I thought. 23. We have to set there and do 
nothing. 24. Thein is beetles. 25. I wonder if any of them is going to 
get left. 26. I begun drawing yesterda3^ 27. I ai)i't got time. 28. Bring 
this up stairs when you go. 29. All these was known as the Alabama 
claims. 30. You can include me, if you wish. 31. He don't speak cor- 
rectl}^ 32. If I had have known it, 1 might have gone. 33. He give me 
ninety-five. 34. It's &e(jra?i togo. S5. 1 am. froze. 36. Whatwt7Z I draw? 
37. My pencil is broke. 38. You had n't ought to go. 39. Did you draw 
it according to the map she give? 40. Are they any one who wish to put 
their names on this paper? 41. Every one have me down for mistakes. 
42. It makes no difference if there is two words. 43. The first thing I 
know I was in the house. 44. I would like to have went. 45. My uncle set 
down and began to talk. 46. Neither George nor Will were home. 47. 
Father come home in the evening. 48. Gas has flown from a well there 
for some time. 49. 1 intended to have called long ago. 50. She feared 
offending her father. 51. I should liked to have seen the trained horses. 
52. She was a reading of it to the neighbors. 53. Did you ever hear of 
me being punished in school ? 54. Be sure ajid get your lessons. 55. You 
never spoke to me about that, but you ought to. 56. I meant to have 
told her about the exhibition, but I forgot to. 57. Stealing is to take what 
belongs to another. 58. Try and find your book. 59. I have my pupils 
to write out their work. 60. I could not get to go any earlier. 61. Frank, 
help me^acA; these bundles home. 62. You hadn't ought to be so care- 
less. 63. We didn't go to do such mischief. 



TOPICAL ABSTRACTS IN REVIEW. 24' 



Topical Abstracts in Review. 

[To the Teacher.— As a means of culture in oral expression and of 
independent recitation, let the pupil, in review, recite each topic as 
presented in the following abstracts, without questioning from the 
teacher, explaining each consecutive step, or making definitions for 
himself, and giving illustrations by means of examples already given, 
or, what is much better, examples collected or constructed by himself. 

The points are not, in all cases, arranged in the order in which they 
were originally developed, but rather more in the order of topics for an 
essay or lecture, in which the pupil is to make clear, concise, and log- 
ically connected statements. 

These abstracts may be used, at the discretion of the teacher, either 
as a final review of the whole subject of Grammar, or at the close of 
the respective chapters.] 



248 



TOPICAL ABSTRACTS IN REVIEW. 



CHAPTER XII. 

Topical Abstracts in Review. 
1. Language. 



1. Words. 



Sentences. ^ 



2. Grouping of parts. •^ 2. Phrases. 

(^ 3. Clauses, 
r 1. Declarative. ^ 
I 2. Interrogative. - Exclamatory. 

3. Signification. -{ 3. Imperative. ) 

I 4. Capitals and closing punctua- 
te tion marks. 



f 1. Simple. 

' 2. Complex. { Clauses. 



r 1. Principal, or Inde- 
) pendent. 

4. Form. ^ " ^ '-'^^^i^^'^"^* >■ ^^^^i^^co. -s 2. subordinate, or 
I V Dependent. 

L 3. Compound.! Clauses independent. 
. 5. Analysis. 



f 1. Subject. 
r 1. Principal. ■{ { 1. Always a verb, j ^^ 

1 2. Predicate 



n. Office.^ 



a; 
o 

C 
a; 



t 2. Complement. , 



Complete. 
Incomplete. 

' 1. Object Com- 
plement. 

2. Attribute of 

Subject. 

3. Attribute of 

Object. 



, 2. Subordinate, or adjuncts.! i' ^<^Jective 
? J (2. Adverbial. 

I 3. Independent. 
I r 1. Conjunction. 

1 4. Connectives. \ 2. Connective Pronoun. 
(3. Connective Adverb. 

f 1. AVords. JParts of Speech. 
I ( 1. Prepositional. 

2. Form.] 2. Phrases,^ 2. Verbal. ^,^^^^: 

I 3. Absolute. 
3. Clauses. 
1^ (Any part may be compound.) 



TOPICAL ABSTRACTS IN REVIEW 



249 



1. Classes of nouns. 



c 
o 



1. Common. { Collective. 

2. Proper. { ( Capital letters. ) 

( 1. First, Second, Third. 





1. 


Person. < 


2. Changes of form in ])ro- 
nouns only. 






( J 


. Masculine, Feminine, 
Neuter. 




2. 


Gender. ^ 


I. Ways of distinguish- ( ^' 
ing, in nouns. | "' 
\. Gender forms of pro- 






1 c 






I 


nouns 




3. 


Number. -! 


1. Singular. 

( 1. General Rules. 


ifications. " 




( 


2. Plural. ) 2. Special Rules. 
( 3. Exceptions, etc. 

' 1. Subject.' 

2. Object. 

3. Object of Preposition. 

( 1. Possessive 

4. Possessive I of Nouns. 

adjunct. J 2. Possessive 
[ ofPronouns 

5. Attribute of Subject. 




4. 


Relation, 






V-'X V/lllv^C* 


6. Attribute of Object. 

7. Appositional. 

8. Adverbial. 

9. Independent. 



[ 10. Rules and Cautions. 

Connected possessives.j^l^^^^^^P;^^ repeated. 
(^Apostrophe but once. 



250 



TOPICAL ABSTRACTS IN REVIEW. 



O \ 

C 

o 



1. Meaning of word. 

2. Antecedent. 



1. Personal. 



1. List. 
' 1. Simple. \ 2. Declension, f 1- First form- 



3. Classes.. 



{■;: 



::( 



Possessives. 1 2. Second form— Use. 



( 1. List, i Singular and Plural. 
2. Compound. < ^ ^ ri. Emphasis. 



ri. Simple. <! ] 



1. List. 

2. Declension. 



3. Different uses of each. 



That preferred.! Rules, 
fl. Expanded. 
2. Connective. J l 2. Different offices as a 

j 2. Doable. { What\ pronoun. 

I 3. As other parts of 
t speech. 
[ 1. List. 
.3. Compound.^ 2. Declension. 

V 3. Eule for whoever. 

(1. List. 
.3. Interrogative. J 2. Declension. 

I 3. Always simple. 

L 4. Always in third person. 

4. Modifications. 5 Same as nouns. 

5. Rules and Cautions. •[ ]; ^f ««■"«"* ^""^ antecedent. 

( 2. C hoice of pronounS; etc. 



TOPICAL ABSTRACTS IN REVIEW. 

1. Definite. 



251 



1. Classes. 



' 1 . Limiting. 



1. Article.- 

^ 2. Indefinite.! Rules. 

2. ISumerals. 

3. Pronominals 



ri.I 

.< 2. S 

(s.s 



1. List. 

Same declineil. 
3. Same compared. 



^2. Descriptive. - 



1. Adjunct. 
1. Uses.<J 2. Attribute. 



■{■: 



1. Common. 
I 2. Classes.] 2. Proper. 

j 3. Compound. 
I 4. Verbal, 
r i 1. Positive. 

1. Forms. ^2. Comparative. 
'3. Superlative. 

Comparison, j ^ Rules -i^- ^"'^ ^^^ ^^^• 

(2. More and most^ less and least. 
3. Irregular. 

[ 4. Certain adjectives not compared. 
Rules and Cautions. 



n. Use. 



'1. Classes.. 



Adverbs. ' 



1. Simple. 

2. Interrogative. 

3. Connective, or Conjunctive. 
f 1. Time. 
I 2. Place. 

3. Degree. 
. 2. Meaning. ■{ 4. Cause. 

5. Manner. 

6. Exclusion, 

7. Addition, etc. 



2. Modification. {Comparison, — but few. 



3. Rules and Cautions. 



252 TOPICAL ABSTRACTS IN REVIEW. 



' 1. Meaning of word. 

2. Connect what. 

3. Rank of parts connected. , ^' , ... / 

^ (2. Subordinate. 

4. Meaning of parts connected. 

r 1. Simple. 

5. Form. - 2. Compound. 



o 
O 



y 3. Correlative. 



o 

Ph 



2. Rules. 
^ 6. General Rules and cautions. 



' 1. Meaning of word. 

[" 1. Position. 
I 2. Possession. 

2. Some of the relations shown. \ 3. Agency. 

I 4. Accompaniment. 
1.5. Kesemblance, etc. 
r 1. Word. 

3. The object. - 2. Phrase. 

t 3. Clause (rarely). 
{ 1. Common. 

4. Kinds. -^ 2. Compound. 

C 3. Ending in ing. 

5. Choice depends upon what. 
I 6. Rules and cautions. 



TOPICAL ABSTRACTS IN REVIEW. 



253 



(1. Principal parts. 



1. First form, 

2. Second form. {Rule. 

3. Tiiirdform. 

4. Fourth form. 



a; 

QQ 

6 



ri. As to form, /a. Weak 



c3 

> 

c 

■S 



strong, i 
a. Complete. 



1,2. As to meaning. 



1. Redundant. 

2. Defective. 
r 1. Intransitive. 

■{ 2. Neuter (when expressing merely 
I existence). 

(I. Active, 
fl. Transitive. J ,. passive. (Rules and 

b. In com- J (^ idioms.) 

plete. <! r Active. (May become 

I J transitive when.) 

t 2. Intransitive. -i 1;^^^^^ ^^,^^^ used as 



3. Forms of use. 



(1. Simple, 

; 2, Emphatic and interrogative. 

I 3. Progressive. 

[4. Passive. 



, copula). 



f 1. Tense. 



( 1. Time tenses. 






Present. 

Past. 

Future. 



Modifications 
of verbs. 



I / 1. Present. 

l2. Perfect tenses.^ 2. Past. 

( 3. Future. 
r 1. Indicative. <j l' l'^'''^;- f ^- ^°™ ^^ ^='<^h. 

( 2. Six tenses. J 2. Time auxiliaries 



"Si 



i^ 



2. Potential. 



1. Auxiliaries. 
. 2. Four tenses 



{' 



3. Subjunctive 



in four. 
Ideas. 
Uses of shall and 

will. 

1. Form of each. 

2. Named how. 
f 1. Ideas. 

2. Differs how from Indicative 

and Potential. 

(1. Form of first. 

3. Two tenses. -< 2. Form of sec- 

V. ond. 
r1. Ideas. 



li. Imperative.^ '■ S^^-Ject-Sec-j^. singular. 
'^ ^ ond person. ( 2. Plural. 

1*3. Present Tense (root form). 

3. Person. 

4. Number. 



l^ 5. Rules and cautions. 



254 



TOPICAL ABSTRACTS IN REVIEW. 



^1. Classed like (l- l^egular and Irregular. 



■ 1. Infinitives. ■ 



03 
(V ' 



verbs. 



2. Active, Passive, Neuter, etc. 



2. Differ from Participles. 



3. The sign to understood after 



4. The sign to he understood after > 2 



5. Tenses. • 



1. Present, Form of ■ 



2. Perfect, Form of- 



U 

1 1. Active and Neuter. 
', 2. Passive. 

1. Active and Neuter. 



C 1. Substantively. 
! 2. Adverbially. 

6. Used i 3 Adjectively. 

1 4. Independently. 

7. Rules and cautions. 



1. Classed like jl- Regular and Irregular, 
verbs. (2. Active, Passive, Neuter, etc. 

1. Pure Noun. 



^ -_ , J 2. Pure Adjective, 

2. May become^ _ t>„.. aZ..k 



2. Participles.-! 



3. Tenses. < 



3. Pure Adverb. 
[4. Pure Preposition. 

1. Imperfect. { Form of 5 '■ ^^'^^^ ^^ ^«'^*^'-- 

■^ (2. Passive. 

2. Perfect. { Always Passive. 

[ Active and Neu- 

3. Compound Perfect.^ ter. 



I Passive. 



C 1. Adjectively. 

4. Used { 2, Substantively. 

1 3. Independently. 

5. Rules and cautions. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS— IfOUNS AND FEONOUNS. 255 
CHAPTER XIII. 

Zesson 232. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

Chapters I. and II. — Nouns and Pronouns. 

1 . Name all the Parts of Speech. Define each. 2. In this defi- 
nition of a noun, "A noun is a name ivord,'* there are six words. 
Make a definition containing five words. 3. Define nouns by using 

three words : Nouns . 4. Define a pronoun in two ways. 

5. Name the two great classes of nouns. 6. Which kind should 
always begin with a capital? 7. When should a noun partly com- 
mon in sense, begin with a capital? 

8. When does a collective noun require a plural verb or pronoun? 
9. Pluralize the following nouns and give the reason for each: ally, 
alley, book, scissors, 5, torch, talisman. Frenchman, sheep, goose-quill, 
man-servant, solo, tomato. 

10. What two parts of speech are sometimes changed in form by 
the modification called person f Give examples. 11. Name the 
persons in grammar. Illustrate each. 

12. Name the genders. 13. In how many ways may the mascu- 
line be distinguished from the feminine? Illustrate. 14. Give the 
three gender pronouns. 15. What pronoun is preferred when the 
sex of the person meant is not specified? Illustrate. 

16. Give examples of the following : (a) Noun used as a subject, 
(b) Noun used as an ol:)ject. (c) As an attribute of the subject. 
(d) In apposition with the subject, (e) In apposition with the ob- 
ject, (f) As the object of a preposition, (g) In apposition with the 
object of a preposition, (h) As attribute of the object, (i) Used 
independently by address, (j) Used independently in an absolute 
phrase, (k) Used adverbially without a preposition. 17. Use a 
pronoun in each of the above ways. 

18. (a) Give an example of a noun used to limit another noun 
meaning the same person or thing, (b) Of a pronoun used to limit 
a noun, (c) Of a noun in apposition with a possessive. 19. (a) 
Give the rule for forming the possessive singular of nouns, (b) For 
forming the possessive plural of nouns. 20. What caution should 
be observed in forming the possessive of pronouns? 21. Name all 
the possessive pronouns ending in s. 22. Name four places where 



256 REVIEW QUESTIONS— PRONOUNS. 

a possessive noun should be written without the apostrophe. 23. 
Give the rule for connective nouns showing separate possession. 
Illustrate. 24. For what purpose does a possessive noun or pronoun 
ever limit a participle? Illustrate. 

25. Name the declinable pronouns. 26. Give three rules for their 
form. Example of each, 27. Decline I, he, wJio, ivhoever, it. 28. 
Use each of these pronouns as the object of an unexpressed prepo- 
sition, before the object complement, 

29. What is analyzing? 30. What is parsing? 31, ^Yhat is dia- 
graming? 32. Write the formula for parsing nouns. 33. AVritethe 
formula for correcting nouns or pronouns having a form not corre- 
sponding to their office. 

Zesson 233. 

Chapter III. — Pronouns. 

1. What is the antecedent of a pronoun? 2. (a) Give an example 
of a noun antecedent, (b) A pronoun used as an antecedent, (c) 
A phrase used as an antecedent, (d) A clause used as an antece- 
dent, (e) What is most frequently used as the antecedent? 3. 
Give examples of an antecedent understood. 

4. What is a personal pronoun? 5. Name all the simple personal 
pronouns. 6. Decline them. 7. Select all the possessive forms of 
the personal pronouns. 8. When are imj, your, etc., used? Illus- 
trate, 9, When are mine, yours, etc., used? Illustrate. 10. Give 
an example in which mine equals two words. 11. What does the 
expression. This is a friend of mine, equal? 12. What is the 
meaning of the expression. This friend of mine was very true to 
mef 13. Explain the expressions, This heart of mine; That 
head of thine, etc. 

14. Name the compound personal pronouns, 15, How are they 
formed? 16. Give the plural of each, 17. What form is always 
lacking? 18. What is the chief use of compound personal pronouns? 
19. (a) Give an example of myself used in apposition, (b) Used 
reflexively after a verb, (c) After a preposition, 20, (a) Give an 
example of himself, used merely for emphasis, (b) Of thyself, used 
reflexively. 21. For what modification do the compound personal 
pronouns change their form? 22, Give the rule for the agreement 
of personal pronouns, 

23, What is a connective pronoun? 24. Name the simple con- 
nective pronouns. 25. Use each in a sentence and show what sub- 



REVIEW QUESTIONS- ADJECTIVES. 257 

stantive office the connective pronoun performs in the adjective 
clause. 26. DecUne the simple connective pronouns. 27. Write 
the formula for parsing personal pronouns. 28. The formula for 
parsing simple connective pronouns. 29. Use what as a connective 
pronoun, then expand the sentence and tell to which clause the 
antecedent part of ivhat belongs. 30. What other word in the sen- 
tence is frequently affected by the person and number of the con- 
nective pronoun? Illustrate. 31. What other parts of speech may 
whathel Illustrate each. 32. What other parts of speech may ^ /mi 
be? Illustrate. 33. Give examples of but used as three different 
parts of speech besides a connective pronoun. 34. (a) Use as as a 
connective pronoun, (b) As a connective adverb, (c) As an intro- 
ductory conjunction. 

35. Name and decline the compound connective pronouns. 36. 
Upon what does the form of tvhoever depend? 37. (a) Use whoever 
in the nominative form, (b) In the objective, (c) Prove by anal- 
ysis that you have used them correctly. 38. Write the formula for 
parsing double and compound connective pronouns. 

39. Give all the rules and cautions for the agreement of pro- 
nouns having antecedents connected by and. 40. All the rules for 
pronounshavingantecedentsconnectedby or or 7ior. 41. For those 
ha\ing collective antecedents. 42. Three other rules for the use of 
personal pronouns. 43. Name and illustrate eight constructions in 
which that is preferred to who or ivhich. 44. Five additional rules 
for the use of connective pronouns. 45. Give an example of a con- 
nective pronoun understood. 

46. Define an interrogative pronoun. 47. (a) Give an example 
of an interrogative pronoun that asks a questjpn. (b) One that im- 
plies a question. 48. Why can not the gender and number of an 
interrogative pronoun be determined? 49. Interrogative pronouns 
are always in which person? Why? 50. How is the interrogative 
ivho dechned? 51. Give examples in sentences of each of its forms. 



J^esson 2S4" 

Chapter IV. — Adjectives. 

1. What is an adjectiv^e? 2. (a) Give an example of a limiting 

adjective, (b) Of a descrij)tive adjective that both limits and 

describes, (c) Of a limiting adjective that numbers, (d) Of the 

before a plural noun, (e) Of an before a word beginning with the 

17-G 



258 REVIEW QUESTIONS—ADJECTIVES. 

aspirate sound of h. 3. Name twelve pronominal adjectives; use 
each one in a sentence and then change it to an ordinary limiting 
adjective. 4. Give the plural of the following adjectives : this, that, 
one, other. 5. Give the possessive of 07ie, other, others, another. 
6. (a) Use which as an interrogative adjective asking a question. 
(b) As an interrogative adjective implying a question. 7. (a) Use 
what as an adjective asking a question, (b) Implying a question. 
8. (a) Use a descriptive adjective as an adjective adjunct, (b) As 
an attribute of the subject, (c) As an attribute of the object, 
(d) Substantively. 9. (a) Use a proper adjective, (b) A com- 
pound, (c) A verbal. 

10. (a) Define comparison, (b) Name the forms of comparison. 
11. (a) "What does the comparative show? (b) The superlative? 
Illustrate in sentences. 12. What adjectives of two syllables are 
compared by affixing er and est f 13. Give examples of dissyllables 
compared by prefix:ing more and most. 14. Dissyllables compared 
so as to express diminution. 15. Give an example of a limiting 
adjective that can be compared. 16. Of a descriptive adjective that 
can not be compared. 17. Of an adjective compared irregularly, or 
by a complete change of the word. 18. Compare good, little, had, 
well, far, late, many, near, top. 

19. Write the form for parsing adjectives. 20. Give the rules for 
choosing between the use of an and a. Illustrate. 21. For con- 
nected adjectives describing different things. Illustrate. 22. For 
connected adjectives describing the same thing. Illustrate. 23. 
Give the rule for articles used with connective nouns. Illustrate. 
24. Mention and illustrate seven cases where an article before a noun 
would be incorrect. 25. (a) Rule for the distinction between few 
and little, (b) 'Between few and a few, (c) Between Utile and a 
little. Illustrate each. 26. In expressing a comparison with than, 
when should each noun have an article ? Illustrate. 27. Give the 
rule with regard to the number form of adjectives. 28. Why is it 
correct to say " a five-cent piece?" 29. Name five nouns that are 
singular when used with numerals, but that otherwise add s. 30. 
(a) Either and neither should refer to how many things? (b) Each 
other f (c) One another f Illustrate each. 

31. When adjectives are of the same rank, which should be placed 
first? 32. What conjunctions connect terms of the same rank? 
33. What should be used when the conjunction is omitted? 34. 
Give and illustrate the rule for a series of adjectives of different 
rank. 35. Why is it not correct to say, "I have a horrible coldf" 



REVIEW QUESTIONS-ADVERBS AND CONJUNCTIONS 259 

36. (a) Give and illustrate the rule for contrasting this and that. 
(b) The one and the other. 37. Rule for the position of adjectives. 
38. For double comparison. 39. When should the latter term of 
comparison exclude the former? Illustrate. 40. AVhen include 
the former? Illustrate. 41. Rule for the use of adverbs of degree 
with adjectives that can not be compared. 



Jjesso?i 2S5, 

Chapter V. — Adverbs. 

1. What does the word adverb mean? 2. Name and illustrate all 
the different parts of speech and other expressions that adverbs 
may modify. 3. What is an interrogative adverb? 4. (a) Give an 
example of an adverb asking a question, (b) Of one implying a 
question. Diagram each sentence. 5. Name all the adverbs that 
can be used interrogatively. 6. What is a connective adverb? 
7. Give an example of a connective adverb that can be expanded 
into two phrases, and diagram the sentence. 8. Give an example 
of a connective adverb that can be expanded into but one phrase. 
Diagram. 9. Name seven things that adverbs may show. Illus- 
trate each. 10. Use the following in sentences, first as adverbs, 
then as adjectives : Hard, near, like, above, early, only, high, loiv, 
fast. 11. How are those adverbs that admit of comparison varied? 
12. Give an example of an adverb of place modifying a word under- 
stood. 13. An adverb of time modifying a word understood. 14. 
Give the caution with regard to the position of adverbs. 15. Choice 
of no and not. 16. Choice of how and that. 17. Choice of that and 
so. 18. Caution about prefixing prepositions to adverbs. 19. Give 
all the remaining cautions under adverbs. 



Zesson 236. 

Chapter VI. — Conjunctions. 

1. What are words that perform no other office than to connect? 
Illustrate. 2. What does coordinate mean? 3. Illustrate five dif- 
ferent kinds of elements that may be joined by coordinate conjunc- 
tions. 4. (a) Give an example of while used as a conjunctive ad- 
verb, (b) As a coordinate conjunction. 5. What is a subordinate 
conjunction? Illustrate. 6. (a) What is the meaning given in the 



260 REVIEW QUESTIONS- PREPOSITIONS. 

dictionary for the word correlative f (b) How does this meaning 
apply to correlative conjunctions ? 7. Give examples of (a) conjunc- 
tions denoting addition, (b) cause and effect, (c) supposition, (d) a 
conjunction introducing a subject clause, (e) one denoting separation 
or opposition, (f ) denoting a choice. 8. Write out the form for pars- 
ing conjunctions. 9. Give an example of an idiomatic subordinate 
conjunction connecting an infinitive to some other word. 10. Give 
and illustrate the uses of either — or, neither — nor, as — as, so — as, 
as — so, so — that, such — that, such — as. 11. (a) An example of as 
used to introduce an attribute of the object, (b) Of the subject, 

12. Give the rule for connected terms referring jointly to another. 

13. What conjunction should follow comparatives? 14. When may 
the preposition besides follow else, more, etc.? 



Zesson 237. 

Chapter VII. — Prepositions. 

1. What part of speech connects words of different rank? 2. Illus- 
trate five different relations shown by prepositions. 3. Name the 
different forms of expression that may be used as the object of a 
preposition, and illustrate each. 4. What parts of speech are most 
frequently used as the object of a preposition? 5. (a) Give an ex- 
ample of Zf^e as a preposition ; {'b)near; (c) luorth; (A) but; (e) dur- 
ing; (f) notwithstanding. 6. Use the following, first as prepositions, 
then as conjunctions, then as conjunctive adverbs, if possible : after, 
since, for, until, before. 7. Use the following, first as prepositions, 
then as simple adverbs : up, down, below, past, by, in, near, 8. Give 
four examples of compound prepositions. 9. (a) Name four prepo- 
sitions ending in ing that are each equivalent to about, (b) Use 
them as verbals also. 

10. Write the form for parsing prepositions. 11. Give the rule 
for choice of prepositions, and illustrate. 12. Eule and illustration 
for the position of prepositional phrases. 13. Illustrate three un- 
necessary uses of the preposition, and show why the preposition 
is not needed. 14. In the sentence, It was the size of a ivalnut, 
where is a preposition needed, and why? 15. Which is correct — 
He acts like her, or He acts like she does f 16. If the subordinate 
clause in the last sentence is retained, what change should be 
made? 17. Insert the proper connective, and tell what part of 

speech it is : (a) It looks he were guilty, (b) He behaved 

■ a madman would have behaved. 



HEVIEW QUESTIONS— VERBS AND VERBALS. 261 

Chapter VIII. — Interjections. 

1. What is an interjection? 2. Illustrate interjections expressing 
four different emotions. 3. Give the three rules for interjections 
and illustrate each. 4. Give the caution. 

Zesso7i 2S8. 

Chapter Y^L.—Verhsand Verbals. 

1. What does a verb do? Illustrate. 2. How do verbals differ 
from verbs? 3. (a) Give an example of a complete verb, (b) A 
complete verbal, (c) An incomplete verbal, (d) An attribute com- 
plement, (e) An object complement. 4. Name the four Principal 
Parts of a verb. 5. How can the first form be obtained? 6. (a) 
Give the four forms of lie, sit, ring, come, do, set, lay, fall, flee, fly, 
flow, (b) Use each form in a sentence. 7. Give the four rules for 
the use of the Principal Parts. 8. What are strong verbs. Illus- 
trate. 9. (a) Give an example of a redundant verb, (b) Of a 
defective verb, (c) Of a verb asserting action, (d) A verb assert- 
ing being, (e) Of a verb asserting a relation between an attribute 
and the subject. 

10. What is the meaning of the word transitive? 11. (a) Name 
two actions that are naturally transitive, (b) Two intransitive. 
12. Use runs as a transitive verb. 13. Tell which of the following 
verbs are naturally transitive: Bite, tear, lie (to recline), set (to 
place), sit, lay (to place), set out, fly, govern, am. 14. Use the fol- 
lowing in sentences, first transitively, second intransitively: Turn, 
burn, sing, speak, icalk. 15. (a) Describe the progressive form, 
(b) The emphatic. 16. When a transitive verb or verbal is in the 
active form, what names the recipient of the act? What names 
the actor? Illustrate. 17. In the passive form, of what is the 
verb or verbal composed? What then names the recipient of the 
action? 18. What verbs can not have the passive form? Why? 
19. When a sentence in which the object has an attribute is 
changed to the passive, what becomes the office of that attribute? 
Illustrate. 20. (a) Give an example of an idiomatic object, (b) 
Of three different kinds of idiomatic passives. 

21. (a) How long is the real present tense? (b) The assumed 
present tense? 22. (a) Name the perfect tenses and illustrate each, 
(b) Why are they called perfect ? 



262 REVIEW QUESTIONS— VERBS AND VERBALS. 

Zesso7i 239, 

Chapter IX. — Continued. 

23. What is mode? 24. What mode asserts a fact? Illustrate. 
25. What mode admits or concedes a fact? Illustrate. 26. What 
m.ode always uses an auxiliary ? 27. What mode uses the root form 
of the verb throughout the present tense, and the plural form 
throughout the past tense? 28. What mode is found nowhere 
except in a subordinate clause? 29. What other modes may be in 
a subordinate clause? 30. What is the chief peculiarity of the 
subjunctive mode? Illustrate by comparing with the indicative. 
31. (a) Give an example of a potential expressing permission, (b) 
Of an imperative expressing permission. How do they differ? 

32. What mode has the tenses in their most natural order? 33. 
How many has it? 34. What is the form of the simple present 
indicative? 35. Describe the form of the remaining five tenses in 
the simple indicative, and illustrate each. 36. (a) How many tenses 
in the potential mode? (to) Name, describe, and illustrate each. 
37. Are the potential tenses named from their form or from their 
meaning? 38. Name, describe, and illustrate the tenses of the sub- 
junctive mode. 39. What form of the verb is used with both singu- 
lar and plural subjects, in the imperative? 40. Give the rules for 
the use of shall, will, should, and would, and illustrate each. 



Wesson 24^0, 

Chapter IX. — Continued. 

41. In modern English, where are the only variations of form for 
person and number ? Describe each. 42. What is the difference 
between a conjugation and a synopsis? 43. Conjugate swim in the 
simple form of construction. 44. Give a synopsis of swim in the 
third person singular. 45. Write the form for parsing verbs, 46. 
In which modes do verbs vary their form for the person and num- 
ber of the subject? 47. Give all the rules for verbs that can be 
made from the rules for the agreement of pronouns. Illustrate each. 
48. Give the two rules in Lesson 208, and the one in Lesson 209. 
Illustrate each. 

49. (a) Give an example of an infinitive used substantively, (b) 
Adverbially, (c) Adjectively. (d) Independently. 50. Describe 
the form of the present active and the neuter infinitive. 



REYIEW QUESTIONS-VERBS AND VERBALS 263 

51. (a) Describe the present passive infinitive, (b) The perfect 
infinitives. 52. Give the rule for the present infinitive after intend- 
ing, hoping, etc. 53. (a) Give the rules for the omission of the 
particle to. (b) When should the particle to not be omitted? 

54. (a) Give an example of a participle that is part verb and part 
adjective, (b) Of a participle part verb and part noun, (c) One 
independent in office. 55. Name the three tense forms of participles. 
56. Describe each in the active construction. 57. AVhat tense is 
wanting in the active construction of participles? 58. Describe each 
tense in the passive form. Illustrate each. 59. What participle is 
always simple and always passive? 60. Write the form for pars- 
ing verbals. 61. Give the rules and cautions pertaining to the use 
of participles, illustrating each by an original example. 



264 PUNCTUATION. 

CHAPTER XIV. 

Ijesso?i 2^L 

Punctuation. 

Notice the position and use of the comma and of the 
period in the following sentences. Analyze the sentences, 
and place the punctuation marks in the diagrams. 

Note. — Punctuation must he learned by practice. Pupils should write sen- 
tences similar to those given in these Lessons, and have them read and cor- 
rected in the class. 

1. Mary, please give me your book, your slate and your pencil. 

2. Mary, please take your seat, study your geography, and learn 
the lesson. 

3. Wallace, when doing his best, learns rapidly. 

4. I have known Wallace, even though naturally smart, to have 
very poor lessons. 

5. You will surely fail, unless you do better. 

6. If you do your best, you will certainly succeed. 

7. A desire to learn, a love for study, and a determination to do 
right, are characteristics of good pupils. 

8. Carelessness and inattention, thoughtlessness and disorder, 
slovenliness and disobedience, are faults of poor pupils. 

9. Lincoln, the martyr president of the United States, died on the 
15th of April, 1865. 

10. Johnson, who had been elected vice-president, acted as presi- 
dent after Lincoln's death. 

11. The king being dead, the prince ascended the throne. 

12. Cruel in disposition and immoral in character, the prince 
astonished everybody by becoming a good king. 

In the sentences above, find the following ten uses of the 
comma: 

1. To set off— separate from the rest of the sentence — the name 
of a person addressed. 

2. To indicate the omission of a conjunction. 

3. To set off a modifying clause, when not closely connected. 

4. To separate words connected by a conjunction, but modified by 
different phrases. 



COMMA, SEMICOLON, PERIOD. 265 

5. To separate from the verb the last of several successive sub- 
jects, when the subjects have modifying phrases. 

6. To set off words in pairs, when the words of each pair are con- 
nected by a conjunction. 

7. To set off an explanatory modifier with its own modifiers. 

8. To set off the name of the year in a date. 

9. To set off an independent phrase. 

10. To set oflf modifiers that are themxselves modified by phrases. 



Lesson 2^2, 

The Comma, Semicolon, and Period. 

Let us put the sentences of the last lesson together, two 
and two. See whether the same ideas are expressed; and 
notice the new words used, those omitted or changed, and 
the additional punctuation needed: 

a. Mary, please give me your book, your slate, and your pencil; 
(hen take your seat, study your geography, and learn the lesson. 

b. Wallace, when doing his best, learns rapidly; hut I have 
known liim, even though naturally smart, to have very poor lessons. 

c. You will surely fail, unless you do better; though if you do 
your best, you will certainly succeed. 

d. A desire to learn, a love for study, and a determination to do 
right, are characteristics of good pupils ; while carelessness and 
inattention, thoughtlessness and disorder, slovenliness and disobe- 
dience, are faults of poor pupils. 

e. Lincoln, the martyr president of the United States, died on 
the loth of April, 1865; ayid Johnson, who had been elected vice- 
president, acted as president after Lincoln's death. 

f. The king being dead, the prince ascended the throne : and, 
though cruel in disposition and immoral in character, he astonished 
everybody by becoming a good king. 

Analyze the sentences a to f, and compare their dia- 
grams with those of the sentences of the previous lesson. 
Place the punctuation marks in all the diagrams. 

You find hut one use of the semicolon in the sentences 
of this lesson, and that is to separate independent clauses 



266 PUNCTUATION. 

in which commas are used. Independent clauses in which 
no commas are used, should be separated by the comma, 
as in the last sentence. 



J^esson 2SS, 

The Comma, Semicolon, Colon, and Period. 

Study the following sentences carefully; notice the posi- 
tion and use of the different punctuation marks; and 
observe what new words or expressions are used, when the 
simple sentences are combined to form compound sen- 
tences. Observe a particular use of the period in sentences 
6 and b. 

1. Rice, wheat, Indian corn, rye, oats and barley constitute the 
principal grain food of man. 

2. Beef, mutton, pork, veal, venison, fish and fowl supply the 
principal animal food of man. 

3. Asparagus, cabbage, celery, cauliflower, green corn, green peas, 
string beans, and the potato, turnip, radish, tomato, and beet form 
the principal vegetable food of man. 

a. Rice, wheat, Indian corn, rye, oats and barley constitute the 
principal grain food of man ; and beef, mutton, pork, veal, venison, 
fish and fowl supply the principal animal food of man ; while aspara- 
gus, cabbage, celery, cauliflower, green corn, green peas, string 
beans, and the potato, turnip, radish, tomato, and beet form his 
principal vegetable food. 

4. Oranges, lemons, flgs, grapes, and other semi-tropical fruits 
grow abundantly in many parts of California. 

5. California produces great quantities of apples, pears, peaches, 
plums, and other fruits common to the temperate zone. 

6. California, though extending only from Lat. 32° to 42° North, 
has great enough variety of soil and climate, on account of its 
valleys, hills and mountains, and the proximity of the Pacific, to 
enable it to produce nearly all the fruits found in the whole world. 

to. Oranges, lemons, figs, grapes, and other semi-tropical fruits 
grow abundantly in many parts of California; and this state pro- 
duces also great quantities of apples, pears, peaches, plums, and 
other fruits common to the temperate zone: so it is found that 
California, though extending only from Lat. 32° to 42° North, has 



COJLVA, SEMICOLON, COLON, PERIOD. 267 

great enough variety of soil and climate, on account of its val- 
leys, hills and mountains, and the proximity of the Pacific, to 
enable it to produce nearly all the fruits found in the whole world. 

7. Our roads are dry, hot, and dusty, in summer. 

8. Our roads are frequently wet and muddy, and sometimes 
impassable, in winter. 

9. The travel by railroad is seldom unpleasant, or interrupted in 
any way except by great storms of snow in the mountains. 

10. The pleasantest time to travel in all the different parts of 
California is either soon after the last rains in the spring, or imme- 
diately after the first rains in the fall. 

c. Our roads are dry, hot, and dusty, in summer; and they are 
frequently wet and muddy, and sometimes impassable, in winter; 
but the travel by railroad is seldom unpleasant, or interrupted in 
any way except by great storms of snow in the mountains : so, all 
things considered, the pleasantest time to travel in all the different 
parts of CaUfornia is either soon after the last rains in the spring, 
or immediately after the first rains in the fall. 

11. Some soils are deep, dry, warm, dark-colored, and strong; and 
others are shallow, wet, cold, light-colored, and weak. 

12. In the soils that are deep, dry, warm, etc., fruits and vege- 
tables grow large, sweet, abundant, and well-formed ; while in the 
soils that are shallow, wet, cold, etc., fruits and vegetables grow, if 
they grow at all, small, insipid, few, and ill-shaped. 

d. Some soils are deep, dry, warm, dark-colored, and strong; and 
others are shallow, wet, cold, light-colored, and weak : in the former, 
fruits and vegetables grow large, sweet, abundant, and well-formed; 
while in the latter, they grow, if they grow at all, small, insipid, few, 
and ill-shaped. 

In this Lesson you find the colon as well as the semicolon 
used to separate the independent clauses. Compare a with 
b and c. Kotice that the semicolon separates independent 
clauses of the same kind, while the colon sets off an inde- 
pendent clause that contains a more general thought inferred 
from the preceding clauses. In d the colon separates two 
compound sentences in which semicolons are used. AVhy 
is d preferable to 11 and 12? In 7 and 8 the comma is used 
to set off phrases separated from the words they qualify. 
In 4 and 5 see examples of the 4th direction in Lesson 241. 



268 PUNCTUATION. 

And in the directions of that Lesson, see another use of the 
colon to separate numbered phrases or clauses from the 
statement that introduces them. 



J^esso?i 2^4-, 

Sometimes the adjectives modifying a noun need to be 
separated by commas, while in other cases the commas 
are not needed. 

See if you can determine, by the following examples, when it is 
that commas are needed, and when not: 

1. James is a bad, ungrateful, dissipated fellow ; but his sister Ellen 
is a good, refined, beautiful girl. 

2. The Governor lives in a splendid large three-storj'^ mansion, and 
he drives a pair of beautiful large iron-gray horses. 

a. James is a bad fellow, an ungrateful fellow, a dissipated fellow ; 
but his sister Ellen is a good girl, a refined girl, a beautiful girl. 

b. The Governor lives in a stone mansion, a three-story stone man- 
sion, a large three-story stone mansion, a splendid large three-story 
stone mansion ; and he drives a pair of iron-gray horses, a pair of large 
iron-gray horses, a pair of beautiful large iron-gray horses. 

Comparing 1 with a, notice that each adjective modifies the noun 
only; but comparing 2 with b, notice that the last adjective modi- 
fies the noun, that the next adjective preceding modifies the adjec- 
tive and noun following, and that each one back to the first modifies 
all that follow. 

For the use of the comma in punctuating Relative Clauses, see 
examples Lesson 107. 

The connective pronoun tliat^ with its clause, should not 
be set off by the comma; but who and which ^ when they 
mean and it, and they, etc., should, with their clauses, be set 
off by the comma. 

Have you observed that the comma is used for the simplest 
punctuation, that the semicolon is used to indicate a greater change 
in the sentence than that shown by the comma, and that the colon 
is used to indicate a still greater change in the sentence? And 
have you noticed that the period is used to indicate the end of a 
completed sentence, and that it is also used to complete an abbrevi- 
ation? 



INTERROGA TION, EXCLA MA TION, BRA CKET. 269 

Jyessou 2So. 

The Interrogation, Exclamation, and Bracket. 

Notice how each is used, and for what purpose. Here and far- 
ther on, note two uses of the apostrophe. 

Nellie. Who is that coming with Maj'? 

Russell. Do n't you know ? 

Nellie. Is it brother Charley ? Why, it is, sure enough ! Oh ! oh ! 
oh! how glad I am ! [Clajxping her hands, and jumping tip and down^^ 

Russell. Be quiet, Nell ! Do n't get excited, or you "11 have everybody 
staring at you. 

Nellie. Charley, have you come at last! [Hugging him tight, 
[tightly] with her arms around his neck.] 

In the following sentences, see how a question may become an 
exclamation : 

1. My boy, what are you doing up in that tree? 

2. You young rascal, what are you doing up in that tree! 

3. Well, Jack, old horse, where are you going now? 

4. Whoa, Jack, you old villain, where are you going now ! 

5. My dear little brother, what is the matter with you? 

6. You little nuisance, what is the matter with you ! 

The interrogation point is placed at the end of each sen- 
tence that is a question simply. 

The exclamation point is placed after exclamations of 
one word, of several words, or of a whole sentence. Ex- 
clamatory expressions may have the form of a question; 
but if the sentences 1 to 6 are properly read, you will notice 
how much the exclamations differ from the questions. 

Brackets are used (1) to inclose a description of some 
action not otherwise spoken of, and (2) to inclose a correc- 
tion of an error in language. 

I^esson 24^6, 

Quotations, Etc. 

Such statements may be made in four ways, three of them quota- 
tions in proper form. Observe the change in the punctuation, and 
in the words preceding the quoted remark. 



270 PUNCTUATION. 

1. The boy answered, asking whether they thought he was a fool. 

2. The boy answered, " Do you think 1 am a fool?" 

3. The boy's answer was: " Do you think I am a fool?" 

4. The boy answered thus : " Do you think I am a fool?' 

5. The boy answered, demanding whether they thought he was a 
fool! 

6. The boy answered, " Do you think 1 am a fool !" 

7. The boy's answer was : " Do you think I am a fool !" 
3. The boy answered thus; " Do you think I am a fool!" 

9. The martyr Stephen died while praying that the Lord Jesus would 
receive his spirit. 

10. The martyr Stephen died while praying, " Lord Jesus, receive my 
spirit." 

11. The martyr Stephen died while offering the prayer : " Lord Jesus, 
receive my spirit." 

12. The martyr Stephen died while offering this prayer : " Lord 
Jesus, receive my spirit." 

Single quotation marks indicate a quotation within a 
quotation. 

13. "Let us sing," said the preacher, "the familiar hymn, 'When 
I can read my title clear,' found on page 94." 

14. The stranger approached the sentinel, whispering, " Don't shoot : 
the password is 'New York;' or it was an hour ago." 

15. " Clifford says, ' seven and three are eleven,' " came in a "squeaky" 
voice through the open door. 

Notice that the quotation marks are used to show the 
exact words that have been spoken or written by some one, 
or to show that some word is used in a pecuhar way. 
Notice (1) that the comma sets off each quotation that is 
a subject clause, or an object clause not formally intro- 
duced; (2) that the colon precedes each quotation formally 
introduced. 

Jjesso7i 2^7- 

The Dash, Apostrophe, and Marks of Parenthesis. 

Here are three ways to arrange and punctuate a paren- 
thetical expression: 



DASH, APOSTROPHE, PARENTHESIS. 271 

1. Father's barn was burned, so they say, at ten o'clock, Monday 
evening. 

2. Father's barn was burned — it was told us in town — at ten 
o'clock, JMonday evening. 

3. Father's barn was burned (Mr. Martin sent us word) at ten 
o'clock Monday evening. 

4. All our magazines, the bound as well as the unbound, were 
injured by yesterday's rain. 

5. All our magazines — some bound and some unbound — were 
injured by yesterday's rain. 

6. All our magazines (some of them were bound, and some were 
unbound) were injured by yesterday's rain. 

The following show a particular use of the parenthesis: 

7. The speaker remarked as follows : 

(Here follows the address of the speaker in his own words.) 

8. The speaker remarked that, (Here follow the thoughts of the 
speaker in the language of the reporter.) 

Here is another use of the dash: 

9. " Fred went fishing, Harry went hunting, and Bertie — I don't 
know where he is." 

10. "I am well, thank you, pother's health is good, and the 
children are — Why, child, what "makes you so uneasy?" 

1. The comma is used to set off a parenthetical expres- 
sion when it is the least formal — makes the least break in 
the sentence; 2. The dash is used when the expression is 
more formal ; 3. The parenthesis mark is used when the 
expression is the most formal. 

In 7 and 8 the parenthesis marks are used to inclose 
directions in regard to what should be placed where the 
directions are given. 

In 9 and 10 the dash indicates a change from one remark 
to another before the first is completed. The dash is also 
used to set off a definition or explanation, as in the sentence 
following 10, and in Lessons 241 and 248. 

The apostrophe is used (1) to help complete the posses- 
sive form, and (2) to indicate a letter or letters omitted. 



272 PUNCTUATION. 

Lesson 24^8. 

The Hyphen — Yes and No. 

Observe in the following sentences how the hyphen may 
be used : 

1. They were ill-featured, ill-formed, coarse-looking fellows. 

2. That was a go-as-you-please race. 

8. The word ''contumely" should be divided into four syllables, 
thus; con-tu-me-ly. 
4. One of the words frequently misspelled is s-e-p-a-r-a-t-e. 

Yes and No. 

Teacher. Edward, have you completed your work ? 
Edward. No, sir: it is not quite done. 
Teacher. Stephen, is yours done yet? 
Stephen. Yes: I have just finished. 
Edward. Can you give me ten minutes more, sir? 
Teacher. No : it is time to call the next class. George, is your 
work done? 

George. Yes, sir: all done. 

The hyphen is used to form compound words of two or 
more simple words ; also to separate a word into syllables, 
or into letters. 

Another common use is at the end of the line, when part 
of a word — one or more syllables — is written or printed on 
the next line below. In manuscript it helps the eye in 
reading rapidly to have the hyphen written with each part 
of the word, especially when the page is wide; and it would 
be well to make the hyphen double ( = ) to make it more 
distinct. 

Yes or No, when used with or without the name or title 
of some one addressed, should, when equivalent to a sen- 
tence, be set off by the colon. In the answer of Edward, 
"No, sir:" is equivalent to "I have not completed it. 



EXAMPLES-RULES. 273 

Jjesso?i 2^9. 

Examples, Remarks, Rules. 
In the following sentences determine how many different 
meanings each sentence may have, according to the position 
of the commas you can use: 

1. The name of one firm is Howard Blake & Co.; and the other 
is styled Abram Thomas Johns & Co. 

2. The boys' names are Charles Dexter Henry George Spencer 
Cliflford Percy Jackson Martin Thomas Perry. (From 4 to 11 
names, according to the punctuation.) 

3. Father went there on Tuesday he took Sam's gun and shot 
and killed the deer. 

4. We went to their cabin frequently visiting the young folks 
making shakes of the logs and bolts to haul them down to the val- 
ley. 

Remaeks. — When we talk, the tones of the voice help to make our words 
convey the meaning intended; but when we write, the puncttiation must take 
the place of the voice, and, in some degree, make our meaning clear to those 
who read. If written or printed matter is properly composed and punctuated, 
one who understands how to read well can easily convey to others the intended 
meaning by speaking the sentences as given. 

Punctuation, then, is nothing more than the art of pointing off our sen- 
tences with the marks in common use, so as to make our written words con- 
vey to others the meaning we desire to give. This can be done after consid- 
erable practice, if care is taken to have the words, phrases, and clauses properly 
arranged. 

Rule I. — When punctuation marks are needed in a simple 
or complex sentence — some exceptions — use the comma; 
also use the comma to separate the parts of a compound 
sentence, when no comma is used in any part; otherwise 
use the semicolon. 

Rule II. — Use the colon to separate compound sentences 
in one or hoth of which a semicolon is used; also to indicate 
a greater change in a sentence than that shown by the semi- 
colon. 

Rule III. — At the end of every completed sentence place 
a period, unless an interrogation point or an exclamation 
point is needed. 

18-G 



274 PUNCTUA TION. 

Rule IV. — Use such punctuation marks as will make each 
sentence clear, and use only those marks that are needed. 



Zesso?i 250, 

Capital Letters. 

You have already learned that the proper nouns, the pro- 
noun I, and the exclamation 0, as well as the first word of 
every sentence, should be written with a capital letter. In 
the sentences already given, notice the use of capital letters 
in the questions, exclamations, and quotations. 

Study the following sentences and determine, if you can, 
why the capital letters are used: 

1. In the ''Life of Napoleon " by Scott, we learn that the Great 
Emperor was sometimes called ''Little Corporal" by his soldiers. 

2. I have heard boys called by the nicknames: Tubby, Chug, 
Pokey, and Doctor. 

3. The God of the Bible is called Heavenly Father, Creator, 
Almighty, I Am ; and the Savior is called Immanuel, Prince of 
Peace, Redeemer, and Son of God. 

4. Mid trials and troubles be cheerful, 

Not tearful — 
Go forth with a heart full of song ; 

Yea, be strong 
'Gainst wrong, and in favor of right, 

In the light 
That shines from the Book divine. 

If it is necessary to make a common word conspicuous, it is usuallj^ 
done by making the initial letter a capital ; but a word may also be 
made conspicuous in any one of the following ways: Banner, indicating 
in Italics; banner, indicating in small capitals; BANNER, indicating 
in large capitals. 

Rule. — All names of persons however used, titles of books, 
the principal words used as names of the Deity, and the 
first word of every line of poetry, should begin with capital 
letters. 



LETTER WRITING. 



Tib 



CHAPTER XV. 

Letter Writing. 

[To the Teacher.— Very few of the pupils of tlie grammar schools 
will ever attend any school of a higher grade. Their equipment for the 
duties of life, so far as given in a school education, must be completed 
here. The subject of Letter Writing is usually presented m Rhetoric, 
which is beyond the range of grammar school studies. As all persons 
find occasion to write letters, it seems desirable that some specific 
instruction should be given in this important subject, in connection 
with grammar. The more important points are, therefore, here pre- 
sented, and such examples, comments, and instruction given as seem 
necessary to prepare the pupil to do his letter writing in after life cred- 
itably.] 

The Envelope. 

Notice (1) the position of the outside address, (2) the 
capitalization and punctuation of each line, and (o) the 
position of the postage stamp. 



(To a country address.) 



INIrs. C. H. Gordon, 
Plainview, 

Rock Co., 

Wisconsin. 



Box 108. 



276 LETTER WRITING. 

(To a city address.) 



Miss Alice Gary, 
1189 Fifth Ave. 
New York, 

N. Y. 



The Outside Address should consist of the title, name, 
and residence of the person addressed. 

The Residence consists of the post-office, the county, and 
the state. If the person addressed lives in a large, well- 
known city, the number and street should be given, but the 
county may be omitted. 

The name should be a little below the middle of the 
envelope, and should be written so that the two ends shall 
be about equally distant from the right and left edges. 
The other parts should be arranged below, each a little 
farther to the right than the preceding line, so as to pro- 
duce a uniform slope at the left. Be careful to have 
straight lines, but do not scratch or rule them. 

Begin every word with a capital. 

Place a comma after each item except the last. 

If a title is written after the surname, put a comma 
between the name and the title. 

Remark. — The period used after an abbreviation is not a punctuation 
mark, but is a part of the abbreviation; therefore if a punctuation mark 
should be used after the whole word, it should be used after the abbreviation. 



/ 



THE ENVELOPE. 277 

When an dbhreviation occurs at the end of a sentence or address, however, 
hut one period is used. 

Place the postage stamp right end up, upon the upper right hand corner, 
as it is placed on stamped government envelopes, a slight distance from the 
corner, but with the edges of the stamp parallel with the edges of the envelope. 

Remarks and Cautions. — A letter sent by the hand of a messenger needs 
no stamp. Politeness requires that the bearer^s name be written upon the out- 
side of the envelope, preceded by the words '* Politeness of" or '* Kindness 
of." This is usually placed in the lower left hand corner. 

A letter of introduction to be delivered by the person introduced should be 
left unsealed, and, in general, courtesy requires that any letter carried by an 
unpaid messenger should be left unsealed. 

Never forget to inclose a stamp rvhen sending a letter requesting an answer 
solely for your oivn information. When sending such a letter to an entire 
stranger, it is better to inclose an envelope also, directed to your own address. 

Special Caution. — The majority of letters that fail to reach the persons 
for whom they are intended, are lost through some error or omission in the 
direction of the envelope, or because they have not the yiecessary stamp. Learn 
to use great care in attending to these particulars. 

Examples of Addressed Envelopes. 



If not called for in 10 days, return to 
Kobert J. Tracy, 
412 Filbert St., 
San Francisco, California. 



Miss Jean McCormick, 
"Milford, 

Jefferson Co., 
Wisconsin. 



/o ^^y. K. T. Marsh. 



Note.— 77ie mark [ /^ ] is a business abbreviation for in care of, 



278 



LETTER WRITING. 



Rev. J. H. Mendon, 
London, 

England. 



15 Chilworth St., 
Hyde Park, 



Remaek. — In directing foreign letters, and in cases where the direction is 
long, put in the body of the direction only the items necessary for the infor- 
ination of postmasters in sending the letter to the right town or city. The 
points needed only by the messenger to deliver the letter, may be placed in the 
lower left hand corner. The name of the county is sometimes written in the 
same position. 



Pre^ 



James A. Warner, Esq., 
of the Board of Education, 
Baltimore, 
Md. 



Introducing 

Miss Lillie Fox. 



THE ENVELOPE. 279 



His Excellency, 

Governor Geo. B. Anderson, 
Boston, 

Mass. 



Politeness of Oapt. Jnlni Tavlor. 



Exercise : 

a. Address two envelopes to friends living in the country 
or in small towns. 

b. Address two envelopes to persons living in San Fran- 
cisco or some other large city in the United States. 

c. Address a letter to a person in Paris. 

d. Address a letter to your County Superintendent, intro- 
ducing one of your classmates. 

e. Direct a letter to some one residing outside of Califor- 
nia, in such a manner that it will be returned to you if the 
owner is not found. 



280 LETTER WRITING. 

The Letter. 

Direction. — Examine the different parts of the following 
model of a letter on ordinary note paper. Notice the posi- 
tion, capitalization, and punctuation of each item: 






^^C 



U^-Zi't-ccia-a/ (Q^^^. 



■a-oi^^il- -me- fv'i^-CKiyid'4^ -t-o- 



•«i^-?*«- ■?^cn.t' 'f/zci-f -ci-z -a. ■ieac^/ti'i -j^'t-ee-^t-j-t-^ -a 



& ■yyi^^^^^yiyt^e'l-ii' -a. 






./ 






«-«-/** 'Z.^Ai'-e- i^ci^Oi^-- 






THE LETTER. 



281 



The figures in the following abstract correspond to the 
parts of the preceding letter, as numbered on the margin. 
Learn the names of the difi'erent parts of a letter so that 
you can readily J^pply them to the model. 



f Enveloi 






Address, 
imp. 



( Heading. 



1. Place. 



Name. 



2. Date 

f 3. Address, f 
Introduction. \ (Eesidence. 

[ 4. Salutation. 

P-irts^ I 5- Beginning, 

^'^^^^•nj. Body.^ Margin. 



I' p. o. 

< Co. 
( State. 



Letters. \ 



I. Paragraph. 



I 8. Complimentary close. 
j Conclusion. -| 9. Signature. 
I l^ Address, if not in the introduction. 

I, Punctuation of each part. 

Folding. 

f Friendship. 

I Congratulation. 
I Condolence, etc. 



[ Kinds of Letters, i 



Business. 



Mercantile. 

Application and Answer, 

Recom m en dation . 



L Introduction, etc. 



I. The Heading, 

Begin the heading on the first ruled line of note paper, 
and a little to the left of the middle of the page, so that the 
words need not be crowded. If short, the heading may oc- 
cu])y but one line. If two lines are needed, the date should 
be placed on the second, and should begin farther to the 
right than the name of the place. In writing from a city 
where there is a free mail delivery, give the door number, 



282 LETTER WRITING. 

the name of the street, of the city, and of the state. If 
living in a hotel or other large building, give the name of 
the building and number of the room. Begin each impor- 
tant word with a capital, set off each item by the comma, 
and close the heading with a period. The door number, the 
day of the month, and the year are the only items in a let- 
ter that should be written in figures, except, in some cases, 
a sum of money. 

Exercise : 

a. Write the following headings according to the above 
model and directions: 

1. 1796 pacific St. portland Oregon July 4 1885. 

2. Commercial hotel Chicago ill. Aug 9 1880. 

3. Room 27 Russ house san francisco cal aug 7. 1876. 

b. Write three headings of your own from different places. 

II. The Introduction. 

1. Address. — A title of courtesy, such as Mr.^ Airs., Miss, 
or Esq., and professional, literary, or military titles, such as 
Dr., Prof., A.M., and Col, should be given in the address. 
Two of such titles should not be joined to one name. Mr. 
Henry Sawyer, Esq., is incorrect. 

Remark. — In addressing a clergyman, the double title Rev. Mr. may he 
used, the Mr. heing a substitute for the Christian name, tvhen not known. 
The husband's title is sometimes written after the title Mrs.; as, Mrs. Dr. 
Cross. 

When two literary or professional titles are added to one 
name, one must not include the other. The higher title 
implies the lower. Why is the following incorrect? Rev. 
Dr. Morse, D.D. 

Begin the address on the next line or the second below 
the heading, on the left side of the page, at the marginal 
line.* It may occupy two or three lines, each lower line 

* Note.— The width of the margin should be from one fourth of an 
inch (on narrow note paper) to one inch (on large letter paper). 



INTRODUCTION— IN VITA TION 283 

beginning a little farther to the right than the previous one. 
Capitalize and punctuate the items and abbreviations in 
the same manner as the heading, closing with a period. 

In all ordinary business letters not official, the address 
should be the same in substance as that upon the envelope, 
and should be placed at the top of the letter, but in family 
letters and letters to intimate friends, the address may be 
placed at the left, on the next line below the signature, and 
in official letters should always be written there. 

2. Salutation. — The style of salutation depends upon the 
station of the person addressed, the writer's relative posi- 
tion, and the degree of intimacy existing between them. 

Dear Sir, Dear Madam, Dear Miss, 

are used in mere business letters or in addressing ordinary 
acquaintances; 

My dear Sir, My dear Miss Rider, etc., 

in addressing friends; 

My dear Sister, Dear Alice, Dearest Brother, 

near relatives and dear friends. 

Begin the salutation a little to the right of the marginal 
line, under the first letter of the second line, if the address 
occupies three lines; if but two lines, about an inch farther 
to the right than the beginning of the second line; and if 
but one, a})Out an inch to the right of the marginal line. 

The first word of the salutation and every noun in it 
should begin with a capital. 

The salutation should be followed by the comma; or, if 
the body of the letter begins on the same line, by the comma 
and the dash. In more formal letters, a colon may be used. 

Exercise: 

Observe the following models, and then arrange the 
remaining introductions; 



284 LETTER WRITING. 

Model 1: J. H. Wilson, Esq., 

567 Broadway, 

New York. 
Dear Sir, — Your favor, etc. 

Model 2: Messrs. Walter Moffatt & Sons, 

Rochester, Minnesota. 

Gentlemen, — I am requested, etc. 

Model 3: Miss Winifred Norton, 

Dear Madam, 

Accept my sincere thanks for 
the basket of lovely flowers, etc. 

1. Hon. D. D. Goodall 893 F street Sacramento Cal. Dear Sir 
The goods shipped upon, etc. 

2. Mrs. Eliza Mason Trenton N. J. My dear Friend. 

3. Master Willie Tubhs Dear Willie I was greatly pleased to 
receive your interesting account of the, etc. 

4. Write three other introductions, of your own, to letters of 
friendship or to business letters. 

Very formal letters, such as invitations and their answers, 
announcements, etc., are in the third person, and have no 
introduction. When short, they should begin below the 
first ruled line, or, so as to occupy, when finished, the mid- 
dle of the page. 

Invitation. 

Mr. and Mrs, Hall request the -pleasure of Mr. WrighVs company 
at a social gathering, on Tuesday evening, at eight o^clock. 
1210 Elm Ave., Nov. 8. 

Accepting the Invitation. 

Mr. Wright accepts with much pleasure the kind invitation of Mr. 
and Mrs. Hall to be present at their residence next Tuesday evening. 

Declining the Invitation. 

Mr. Wright presents his compliments to Mr. and Mrs. Hall, ivith 
regrets that it will he impossible, by reason of a previous engagement, 
to accept their kind invitation for Tuesday evening. 

III. The Body of the Letter. 

This should generally begin on the line under the saluta- 
tion, just at the right, or, when the address is long, on the 



THE CONCLUSION. 285 

same line, with a dash between the first word and the end 
of the sahitation. (See Models 1 and 2 above.) 

The body of the letter should begin with a capital, should 
l)e neatlv and clearly written, and should be divided into 
paragraphs. There should always be a narrow margin at 
the left of each page, but not at the right. 

No blots are allowable. 

Remark. — A paragraph contains one sentence or a group of connected 
sentences in the same line of thought. The beginning of a new subject or a 
new line of thought should be indicated by a new paragraph. Avoid, how- 
ever, dividing a letter into more paragraphs than are necessary. 

Exercise : 

Write a letter to your teacher giving an account of the 
manner in which you spent your last birthday. Write a 
full heading and a full introduction, and have at least two 
paragraphs in the body of the letter. 

IV. The Conclusion. 

The conclusion should contain the complimentary close 
and the signature. 

The complimentary close should be written on the next 
line below the end of the body of the letter. If long, it 
may occupy more than one line. It should begin with a 
capital and end with a comma. Generally the writer's 
signature, in full, should be written on the next line below 
the complimentary close, near the right hand edge of the 
sheet. It should end with a period. 

Remark. — When the address is not in the introduction nor in the body of 
a formal letter, it should be written below the signature, at the left. 

Like the forms of salutation, the forms of complimentary 
close vary with the style of letter, the degree of intimacy 
or formality, etc. The following are a few of the forms: 

Social Letters. — Your friend, Your sincere friend, Your loving 
daughter, Lovingly yours, Yours heartily and affectionately, Now 
and ever yours, etc. 



286 LETTER WRITING. 

Note. — Let your good sense and your feelings dictate the choice of forms. 
Do not capitalize any word hut the first and the word Sir, when used. See 
below. 

Business Letters. — Yours respectfully, Yours truly, Very truly 
yours, etc. 

Official. — I have the honor to be. Sir, 

Your obedient servant, 

Charles D. Babcock. 
Very respectfully. 

Your most obedient servant, 

Frank Warner. 

The signature should consist of the writer's full name or 
of the initials of the Christian name and the whole of the 
surname. When a lady addresses a stranger, she should, 
in parenthesis, prefix her title {Mrs. or Miss) to the sig- 
nature; thus, 

(Miss) Ellen E. Jones. 

The close and signature should be arranged like the 
heading and introduction, so as to present a regular down- 
ward slope toward the right. 

Exercise : 

Arrange the following conclusions properly: 

1. Believe me, dear girl ever your sincere friend Helen L. Gibson. 

2. I am Sir yours very respectfully Waldo Thompson. 

3. Your loving daughter Gertrude Miller. 

4. Very sincerely, your friend Robert Hunt. 

5. Write a suitable conclusion for a letter to your father or mother, 
another to your teacher, and one to an intimate friend or a school- 
mate. 

Folding the Letter. 

The envelope should be of a size to match the paper. If 
the envelope is square, with note paper to match (twice the 
size of the envelope), but one folding is necessary— to bring 
the top and the bottom together, with the heading inside. 

If the length of the paper is more than twice the width 
of the envelope, and the width of the paper less than the 



LETTER FORMS. 287 

length of the envelope, fold the bottom edge up about one 
tliird of the length of the sheet, then turn the top down in 
the same manner and press the folds neatly. 

Sometimes it is necessary to fold the sheet lengthwise, 
but in all cases care should be taken to make the folds 
straight and the edges even. 

The letter should be folded and inserted in the envelope 
in such a manner that when taken out and unfolded, it will 
bring the heading up and the first page before the reader's 
eye. 
Exercises : 

a. Practice folding and inserting the letters you have 
already written, or blank sheets of paper. 

b. Write a complete letter covering not less than two 
pages of note paper, to some absent relative or friend, 
describing your day's work at school. After it has been 
criticised by your teacher, put it in an envelope directed 
properly, place a stamp on the envelope, and send the letter 
to the post office. 

Cautions. — Business letters should be short and to the point. 
In toriting to a stranger, give your address in full. 

Business Letter. 

Trenton, N. J., Dec. 4, 1886. 
Messrs. Brooks cfe Stevens, 
149 Park Place, N. Y. 

Dear Sirs, — Please send by mail, as soon as con- 
venient, the following: 

1 copy Scribner's Writing Book, No. 3, $ .10 

2 copies Whittier's Poems, Household Ed., cloth, 4. 
1 copy Dickens' Barnaby Pudge, Globe Ed., cloth, 1. 
Total amount, at prices named in your catalogue — five 

dollars and ten cents, for w^hich amount find P. O. order 
inclosed. 

Respectfully yours, 

Geo. R. Woodman. 



288 LETTER WRITING. 

Letter of Introduction. 

Los Angeles, May 20, 1887. 
My dear Clara, — It gives me great pleasure to introduce 
to you my friend and fellow townswoman, Mrs. Ellen 
Walters, who is an earnest and highly esteemed member of 
the C. L. S. C. of this city. Mrs. Walters visits your city 
in pursuit of health and recreation, but she will be glad 
to make the acquaintance of a few persons of culture and 
refinement. Any attention you may show her 'will be 
esteemed as a personal favor by 

Your old friend, 

Annie L. Field. 
Miss Clara Owens, 
Santa Cruz, Cal. 



INDEX. 



289 



I]^DEX. 



{The references are to pages.) 



Absolute phrase, 52, 102. 

Abstracts, topical, Adjectives, 251; 
Adverbs, 251 ; Conjugations, 252 ; 
Nouns, 249; Prepositions, 252; 
Pronouns, 249, 250; Sentences, 
248; Verbals, 253, 254 ; Verbs, 253. 

Adjectives, defined, 35, 68; com- 
parison of, 139 ; descriptive, 134 ; 
uses of, 137 ; interrogative, 128, 
136; limiting, 134; pronominal, 
135; verbal, 138; form for pars- 
ing, 143. 

Adjective adjuncts, 35, 36, 42. 

Adjuncts, defined, 13; adjective, 
word, 35, 43 ; phrase, 36 ; clause, 
36; adverbial, word, 32, 41; 
phrase, 33 ; clause, 33 ; of a 
phrase or a clause, 102. 

Adverbs, defined, 32, 41, 68 ; classes 
of, 157 ; comparison of, 158 ; con- 
nective, 47, 155; interrogative, 
128, 155 ; nouns used as, 86, 101 ; 
form for parsing, 158, 162; va- 
rious uses of, 153. 

Adverbial modifiers, 32, 33, 41. 

AflBrmative sentence, 11. 

Analysis of sentences, defined, 20, 
95 ; form for simple sentence, 58 ; 
form for complex sentence, 58; 
form for compound sentence, 58. 

Antecedents, 106. 

Apostrophe, uses of the^ 78, 91, 271. 

Apposition, nouns and pronouns 
in, 85, 100; i)hrase in, 99; clause 
in, 99. 100. 
19-G 



Articles, 143. 

As, idiomatic use of, 99; variable 
uses of, 117. 

Attribute, adjuncts of, 37 ; form of, 
95; introduced by as, 99; of sub- 
ject, a word, 27, 28; diagram, 29; 
a phrase, 28; diagram, 59; a 
clause, 28; diagram, 61; com- 
pound, diagram, 29; of object, a 
noun or a pronoun, 87; an ad- 
jective, 98; a phrase, 98. 

Auxiliaries, 190. 

But, variable uses of, 117. 

Bracket, uses of the, 269. 

Capitals, uses of, 11, 21, 72, 128,274. 

"Case," 84. 

Clause, defined, 8, 9; as attribute, 
28; as object, 24; as subject, 16; 
restrictive, 124; dependent and 
independent, 39. 

Colon, uses of the, 266, 273. 

Comma, uses of the, 12. 19, 34, 81, 
100, 128, 183, 264, 265, 266, 273. 

Comparison of adjectives, 139; of 
adverbs, 158. 

Complement, defined, 22; an attri- 
bute, 27; diagram, 29; an object, 
23; diagram. 29. 

Complex sentence, 39, 53 ; form for 
analysis of, 58. 

Compound attribute, diagram, 29. 

Compound object, 24; diagram, 29. 

Compound predicate, 18, 24; dia- 
gram, 29. 

Compound subject, 19; diagram, 29. 



290 



INDEX. 



Compound sentence, 39,54; form 
for analysis of, 58. 

Conjugation, 216. 

Conjunctions, defined, 50, 68,166; 
classes and uses of, 166, 168 ; form 
for parsing, 170. 

Construction of words, 95. 

Correlatives, defined, 169; list of, 
172. 

Dash, uses of the, 271. 

Declarative sentence, 10. 

Declension, 94; practical applica- 
tion of, 110. 

Diagraming, defined, 29, 95. 

Ellipsis, diagrams, 100. 

Entire predicate, 13, 

Entire subject, 15. 

Errors in the use of adjectives, 147, 
150, 165, 245; adverbs, 162, 165, 
245; articles, 145 ; conjunctions, 
173, 175, 245; nouns and pro- 
nouns, 97, 126, 244; prepositions, 
184, 186, 246 ; possessives. 93 ; pro- 
nouns, 123, 126, 132 ; verbals, 235, 
246 ; verbs, 199, 227, 246 ; miscel- 
laneous, 241. 

Etymology of words, 69. 

Exclamation point, uses of the, 12, 
269. 

Exclamatory sentence, 10, 

Gender, 82. 

Hyphen, uses of the, 272, 

Idioms, defined, 101. 

Idiomatic phrases, 102; use of as, 
99; use of it, 108; use of verbs, 
204. 

Imperative sentence, 10, 

Independent parts, 50; diagrams, 
60, 61, 

Infinitive phrase, 45. 

Infinitives, defined, 45; uses and 
forms of, 228 ; form for parsing, 
235. 

Interjections, defined, 51, 68, 188; 
use of, 188. 



Interrogation point, use of the, 12, 

269, 

Interrogative sentence, 10. 

Interrogatives, 128. 

Letter writing, 275. 

Mode, imperative, 208, 215; indica- 
tive, 208, 209 ; potential, 208, 211 ; 
subjunctive, 208, 214. 

Negative sentence, 11. 

Nominative form of nouns, 91 ; of 
declinable pronouns, 95. ' 

Nouns, defined, 16, 68; common 
and proper, 71; collective, 80; 
gender of, 82; number of, 73; 
office of, 84 ; person of, 81 ; form 
for parsing, 96. 

Number, 73; rules for formation, 74. 

Object, a word, 23, 24, 84 ; diagram, 
29; a phrase, 24; diagram, 60; a 
clause, 24; diagram, 62; com- 
pound, 24; diagram, 29; ad- 
juncts of, 35 ; of a preposition, 43 ; 
of a preposition not expressed, 
86, 184, 204. 

Objective form of nouns, 92 ; of de- 
clinable pronouns, 95. 

Office of nouns and pronouns, ap- 
position, 85 ; attribute of object, 
87; noun used adverbially^, 86; 
object of preposition not ex- 
pressed, 86, 184, 204 ; possessives, 
89; subject and object, 84. 

Parenthesis, use of the, 271. 

Parsing, defined, 95. 

Participial phrase, 44. 

Participles, defined, 46, 231; uses 
and forms of, 231 ; form for pars- 
ing, 235. 

Parts of speech, how to tell the, 
69; definitions of the, 68. 

Period, uses of the, 11, 264, 265, 266, 
273. 

Person, 81, 

Phrase, defined, 8; absolute, 52; as 
attribute, 28; as object, 24; as 



INDEX. 



291 



subject, 1(5; prepositional, 42; 
position of, 183; verbal, 44. 

Plurals, formation of, 74. 

Possessives, 89 ; rules for forming, 
91. 

Possessive pronouns, 109. 

Predicate, word, 13; diagram, 29; 
entire, 13; compound, 18, 24; di- 
agram, 29 ; modifiers of the, 32. 

Prepositional phrase, 42 ; position 
of, 183. 

Prepositions, defined, 43, G8, 176; 
choice of, 181; li.st of, 178; not 
expressed, 80, 184, 204 ; object of 
(word, phrase, or clause), 177; 
form for parsing, 180; relations 
shown by, 17G ; variable uses of, 
179. 

Principal parts of a sentence, 31 ; 
of a verb, 189. 

Pronouns, defined, 16, 68; antece- 
dents of, 106 ; connective, 46, 113 ; 
compound connective, 118 ; per- 
sonal, 107; compound personal, 
111; declinable, 93; form of, 95; in- 
terrogative, 128, 131; possessive, 
109; gender of, 82; number of, 
73; office of, 84; person of, 81; 
form for parsing personal, 113; 
form for parsing simple connec- 
tive, 115; form for parsing w/ta^ 
and compound connective, 120. 

Punctuation, 19. 34, 264. 

Questions, in review. Part I., 55; 
Part II., adjectives, 257 ; adverbs, 
259; conjunctions, 259; interjec- 
tions, 261 ; nouns and pronouns, 
255 ; prepositions, 260 ; pronouns, 
256; verbs and verbals, 261. 

Quotations, direct and indirect, 
128 ; punctuation of, 128, 269. 

Rules of Syntax and Cautions.— 
Adjectives, 146; adverbs, 160; 
articles, 143; conjunctions, 171; 



infinitives, 230; nouns, nomina- 
tive form of, 91; nouns, pos- 
sessive form of, 91; participles, 
233; prepositions, 181, 183, 185; 
pronouns, agreement with ante- 
cedents, 113, 120; pronouns, con- 
nective, 123 ; pronouns, declina- 
ble, form of, 95 ; pronouns, form 
whoever, 119; verbs, 223; verbs, 
auxiliaries, 190; verbs, use of 

■ shall and will, 212. 

Semicolon, uses of the, 265, 266, 273. 

Sentence-building, 52. 

Sentence, defined, 8, 9; classified 
according to form, 38 ; classified 
according to meaning, 10; prin- 
cipal parts of, 31. 

Shall and will, uses of, 212. 

Simple sentence, 39, 52; form for 
analysis of, 58. 

Subject, word, 15, 84; diagram, 29; 
entire, 15 ; a phrase, 16 ; diagram, 
59; a clause, 16; diagram, 61; 
compound, 18; diagram, 29; ad- 
juncts of the, 35 ; position of the, 
17. 

Substantive, defined, 17. 

Synopsis, 222. 

Syntax of words, 70. 

Tense, 206. 

That, variable uses of, 117; when 
preferred to who or which, 124. 

Verbal adjectives, 138. 

Verbal phrase, 44. 

Verbals, defined, 44, 68, 189; form 
for parsing, 235; limited by pos- 
sessives, 89: infinitives, 228 ; par- 
ticiples, 231. 

Verbs, defined, 13, 68, 189; classi- 
fied: active and neuter, 200; 
complete and incomplete, 22, 
189; strong (irregular) and weak 
(regular), 191; redundant and 
defective, 191 ; transitive and 
intransitive, 24, 201 ; principal 



/ 



292 



INDEX. 



parts of, 189 ; form of : active and 
passive, 202 ; emphatic, 202 ; sim- 
ple and progressive, 202 ; auxili- 
aries, 190 ; mode, 207 ; tense, 206 ; 
conjugation, 216; synopsis, 222; 
idiomatic constructions, 204 ; 
shall and will, uses of, 212. 






What, double relation of, 116v^^'it- 
riable uses of, 117. ^.,, ,„ 

While, variable uses of, 167. ^ ^ 

Word-predicate, 13. 

Word- subject, 15. 

Words, introductory, 52; ways of 
grouping, 7. 



l'y°'^°^ORESS 



003 237 816 A 



